Culture and Science Chapter Notes | History Class 6 ICSE PDF Download

Introduction

Literature

• In ancient India, people wrote both religious and non-religious books.
• These books were written in languages like Sanskrit and Prakrit.

Discovery of Ajanta Caves

• John Smith, a British army officer, discovered the Ajanta Caves in 1819.
• He found them by accident while running away from a tiger during a hunting trip with the Nizam of Hyderabad.
• He discovered 30 Buddhist temples carved into a horseshoe-shaped rock cliff, 76 meters high, along the Waghora River, which is 550 meters long.
• The Ajanta Caves are located in Hyderabad’s territory, on a tall rock cliff in a semicircle shape.

Religious Texts

• The Vedas, among the oldest religious texts, were initially passed down orally and later written.
• Vedic literature includes the four Vedas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas, Upanishads, Puranas, and epics like Ramayana and Mahabharata.
• Brahmanas are commentaries on Vedic hymns, while Aranyakas and Upanishads provide spiritual interpretations, known as Vedanta.
• Puranas, meaning "old," consist of 18 texts with stories about gods like Vishnu, Shiva, Parvati, and Durga, covering creation, history, and Hindu philosophy.
• Ramayana, written by Valmiki, has 24,000 verses and narrates Lord Rama’s exile, Sita’s abduction by Ravana, and Rama’s victory, symbolizing good over evil.
• Mahabharata, by Ved Vyasa, with over 100,000 verses, is the world’s longest poem, depicting the Pandava-Kaurava war and includes the Bhagavad Gita, emphasizing dharma.
• Buddhist Tripitakas and Jain Purvas, originally in Prakrit and later translated to Sanskrit, are significant religious texts.

Secular Literature

• Key secular works include Arthashastra by Chanakya, Mrichchhakatika by Sudraka, Harshacharita by Banabhatta, Ashtadhyayi by Panini, Natya Shastra, Panchatantra, Jataka Tales, and Kalidasa’s works.
• Mrichchhakatika, a Sanskrit play by Sudraka, tells the love story of merchant Charudutta and courtesan Vasantasena, reflecting ancient society.
• Kalidasa, a renowned poet and dramatist, wrote poems like Kumarasambhava, Meghaduta, Ritusamhara, and Raghuvamsa, and plays like Abhijnana Shakuntalam, Malavikagnimitram, and Vikramorvashiyam.
• Jataka Tales depict Buddha’s previous lives as humans, animals, or trees, often illustrated on stupa railings and in Ajanta paintings.
• Panchatantra, by Vishnu Sharma, is a collection of animal fables with moral lessons, where "Pancha" means five and "tantra" means strategies.
• Natya Shastra, attributed to Bharata, is a treatise on theatre, dance, and music, covering instruments, performance, makeup, and stage design.
• Accounts of travelers like Megasthenes, Fa-Hien, and Hiuen Tsang provide insights into ancient India’s social, political, and economic conditions.

Tamil Literature

• Sangam literature in Tamil offers details about south Indian kingdoms.
• Tolkappiyam, the earliest Tamil work, focuses on language, literature, and grammar.
• Silappadikaram, by Ilango Adigal, tells the story of Kovalan, a merchant in love with courtesan Madhavi, and his wife Kannagi, who destroys Madurai after Kovalan’s unjust execution.
• Manimekalai, by Sattanar, narrates the story of Kovalan and Madhavi’s daughter.

Science

Mathematics

• Aryabhatta, a renowned mathematician and astronomer, wrote Aryabhatiya, explaining Earth’s rotation around the Sun and its axis, eclipses, and circle circumference calculation.
• Varahamihira wrote Brihat Samhita, an encyclopedia covering science and astrology.
• Indian mathematicians used zero with a special symbol and developed the decimal system, later adopted by Arabs and Europeans.

Medicine

• Charaka wrote Charaka Samhita on Ayurveda, detailing disease treatments.
• Sushruta, a famous physician, wrote Sushruta Samhita on surgery, including cosmetic surgery.

Metallurgy

• Ancient Indians had advanced knowledge of metallurgy, exemplified by the Iron Pillar in Delhi’s Qutub complex.
• The 7.2-meter-tall Iron Pillar, inscribed with the name Chandra (likely from the Gupta dynasty), remains rust-free, showcasing ancient craftsmanship.

Art and Architecture

• The Indus civilization’s remains are the earliest architectural examples, showing advanced development.
• Ashokan monolithic pillars, like the Sarnath Lion Capital, are notable for their polished finish and carved animal figures.

Buddhist Architecture

• Stupas, done-shaped structures, house relics like bones or ashes of Buddha or monks, covered with earth, bricks, and topped with an umbrella.
• A pradakshina patha with railings allows devotees to walk clockwise around stupas, with gateways depicting Buddha’s life.
• Famous stupas include Sanchi (founded by Ashoka), Bharhut, Sarnath, and Amravati.
• Viharas and chaityas, initially wooden, later rock-cut, are found at Ajanta, Ellora, and Karle.
• Karle caves, near Mumbai-Pune railway, have India’s largest chaitya cave, funded by diverse donors including princes and merchants.

Early Hindu Architecture

Rock-cut Temples

• Rock-cut architecture involves carving structures from rock.
• Kailasanatha Temple at Ellora, dedicated to Shiva, was built by Rashtrakutas from a single rock.
• Pancha Pandava Rathas at Mamallapuram, carved from single stones during Pallava rule, are named after the Pandavas and Draupadi, with Dharmaraja Ratha being the largest.

Free-standing Temples

• Northern examples include Bhitargaon Temple near Kanpur, Deogarh Temple near Jhansi, and a Sanchi temple, made of bricks and stone.
• Southern examples include the Shore Temple at Mamallapuram and Chalukya temples at Aihole, Pattadakal, and Badami.

Features

• Temples had a garbhagriha (sanctum sanctorum) for the deity’s idol, where rituals and prayers occurred.
• Some temples featured a shikhara (tower) above the garbhagriha and a mandapa (assembly hall) for gatherings.

Finance

• Temple construction was costly, requiring money, materials, and skilled labor.
• Kings and queens funded temples using treasury funds, while rich traders and devotees provided donations.
• Donors’ names were often inscribed on railings, pillars, or walls.

Painting

• Painting began in the Stone Age with cave and rock art, like at Bhimbetka.
• Ajanta Caves, a UNESCO World Heritage Site in Aurangabad, Maharashtra, are renowned for mural paintings depicting Buddha’s life and Jataka Tales.
• These paintings, dated from 2nd century BCE to 6th century CE, used plant and mineral-based colors, remaining vivid today.
• Artists likely used oil torches for light in the dark caves.

Meanwhile

• Paper was invented 1900 years ago in China by Cai Lun, using soaked cloth, rope, plant fibers, and tree bark, pressed and dried into pulp.
• Paper-making remained a Chinese secret until it reached Korea 1400 years ago, then Japan, and earlier to Baghdad and Europe 1800 years ago.