The Romantic Age (1789–1832)
Romantic Industrialism Romanticism was a movement in art, literature, music, and ideas that started in Europe near the end of the 18th century and reached its peak between 1800 and 1890. This period is commonly marked by the release of the Lyrical Ballads by Wordsworth and Coleridge in 1798 and is considered to have ended in 1832 with the death of Sir Walter Scott and the passing of the First Reform Bill by the Parliament. It is often called the 'Age of Revolutions' because of the significant changes happening at that time.
- England underwent a transformation into an industrial center, shifting its economy from agriculture to industry.
- A new social class emerged as rural farm workers migrated to cities for industrial employment, becoming known as the working class.
- The Industrial Revolution brought about substantial social changes, unrest, and turmoil.
- Long-standing traditions were rapidly disrupted.
- The entire landscape of the country was altered, a theme explored by poets like William Wordsworth and John Keats.
Influences on the Romantic Movement
The Romantic movement in 19th-century art and literature was influenced by revolutionary events such as the French and American Revolutions. Poets of the 18th century were particularly inspired by the happenings in France.
- The primary objectives of the French Revolution were Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity.
- Liberty signified the recognition of natural rights and freedoms for all individuals.
- Equality meant that everyone would be treated equally under the law.
- Fraternity promoted mutual respect and coexistence among individuals.
Simple Language in Poetry
Nature's Harmony Wordsworth used everyday, rustic language in poetry, which was a strong reaction against the formal and rigid style of the Augustans. Romanticism was not an abrupt change but evolved from various cultural and philosophical shifts in the late 18th century, along with a response to certain Augustan ideals. Besides nature being a guide and nurse, Romantics explored themes like memory, childhood, and humanity, influenced by the political events of their time.
Characteristics of English Romantic Poetry
- The Sublime
- Reaction
- Against
- Neoclassicism
- Imagination
- Nature
- Poetry
- Melancholy
- Medievalism
- Hellenism
- Supernaturalism
William Wordsworth: A Key Poet of the Romantic Age
Wordsworth, a prominent figure of the Romantic Age, emphasized the significance of childhood experiences and the beauty of nature in his poetry. His works often depict the natural world and its inhabitants, highlighting the themes of nature and memory. In his renowned poem, "Tintern Abbey," Wordsworth illustrates the vital role of nature and memory in human experience. However, he also acknowledges the fragility of imagination and memory, as explored in "The Prelude," where he reflects on his childhood and growth as a poet.
Wordsworth contrasts the purity of life in harmony with nature against the corruption of urban life, particularly in London. His poetry delves into the inner mind that perceives nature, rather than merely describing the natural landscape. His writing style is straightforward, simple, and akin to everyday spoken language, setting it apart from the Augustan Age. A recurring theme in Wordsworth’s poetry is pantheism, the belief that God is present in all things, including the natural world.
The Prelude; or, Growth of a Poet’s Mind
Nostalgic Reflection The Prelude is an autobiographical poem written by William Wordsworth in blank verse. The poem delves into the poet's inner thoughts and reflections, exploring his personal journey of self-discovery and the development of his poetic mind. It emphasizes the significance of nature in shaping human understanding and creativity.
Background
- Wordsworth began writing The Prelude in 1798 when he was 28 years old.
- He continued to revise and refine the poem throughout his life.
Opening Lines
The poem begins with a series of questions, reflecting on the beauty and influence of the Derwent River on the poet's early life. It describes how the river's sounds, combined with his nurse's song, became a soothing presence in his dreams.
Themes
- Nature's Influence: The poem highlights the calming and nurturing effect of nature on the poet's thoughts and emotions.
- Childhood and Memory: Wordsworth emphasizes the importance of childhood experiences and memories in shaping one's understanding of the world.
- Passage of Time: The themes of time, memory, and the passage of time are central to the poem, similar to Wordsworth's earlier work, "Tintern Abbey."
Sonnet Composed Upon Westminster Bridge, September 3, 1802 (1802)
London Morning Majesty In the poem, Wordsworth expresses his personal admiration for the 'majesty' of London, particularly in the early morning. Unlike other writers like Blake or Johnson who depict London as a place of corruption or moral decay, Wordsworth highlights its beauty, both outward and inward. The poem follows the structure of a Petrarchan Sonnet and describes the breathtaking cityscape of London, including ships, towers, theatres, domes, and the grand river Thames, which flows by 'his own sweet will.'
Describing London’s Beauty
- “A sight so touching in its majesty: ”
- “This City now doth, like a garment, wear”
- “The beauty of the morning, silent and bare, ”
- “Ships, towers, domes, theatres, and temples lie”
- “Open unto the fields, and to the sky;”
- “All bright and glittering in the smokeless air. ”
- “Never did sun more beautifully steep”
- “In his first splendour, valley, rock, or hill;”
- “Ne’er saw I, never felt, a calm so deep!”
- “The river glideth at his own sweet will:”
Lines Composed a Few Miles above Tintern Abbey
The poem revolves around the themes of memory and nostalgia as Wordsworth reflects on his visit to Tintern Abbey five years ago. He believes that memories of his time with his sister Dorothy inspire and inform his poetry. However, since the poem focuses on memory and recollection, there are parts that Wordsworth does not remember accurately, highlighting the unreliability of memory.
Celebrating Nature
- The poem celebrates the idea that nature has the power to soothe and comfort any human soul.
- Wordsworth emphasizes the deep connection between nature and mankind, suggesting that they are intertwined.
- The loss referred to in the poem is related to childhood, youth, and innocence.
- The poet reminisces about his boyhood adventures, where he roamed freely like a deer in the fields and hills, surrounded and embraced by nature.
The poem comprises five stanzas, each with varying lengths.
Important Lines from the Poem
Nostalgic Serenity - Five years have passed; five summers, with the length of five long winters! and again I hear these waters, rolling from their mountain-springs with a soft inland murmur. —Once again do I behold these steep and lofty cliffs,
- These beauteous forms, through a long absence, have not been to me as a landscape to a blind man’s eye:
- But oft, in lonely rooms, and ‘mid the din of towns and cities, I have owed to them, in hours of weariness, sensations sweet,
- If this be but a vain belief, yet, oh! how oft— in darkness and amid the many shapes of joyless daylight; when the fretful stir unprofitable, and the fever of the world, have hung upon the beatings of my heart—
- How often have I turned to you in spirit, O sylvan Wye! thou wanderer thro’ the woods, how often has my spirit turned to thee!
- And now, with gleams of half-extinguished thought, with many recognitions dim and faint, and somewhat of a sad perplexity, the picture of the mind revives again:
- And this green pastoral landscape, were to me more dear, both for themselves and thy sake! (referring to Dorothy)
Ode: Intimations of Immortality
- Some interpret the child as a symbol of wisdom and truth. In this poem, the child is a symbol of all that is holy and good.
- Thou best philosopher, who yet dost keep thy heritage, thou Eye among the blind, that, deaf and silent, read’st the eternal deep, haunted for ever by the eternal mind,
The Solitary Reaper (1807)
Nature's Solitude The poem "The Solitary Reaper" was written by Wordsworth after he heard a reaper's song during a visit to Strathyre, Scotland, with his sister Dorothy. The song's words were unclear, but the beauty and tranquility of the music captivated the poet.
- No Nightingale did ever chaunt
- More welcome notes to weary bands
- Of travellers in some shady haunt,
- Among Arabian sands :
Daffodils/ I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud (1807)
Wordsworth wrote this poem, titled "Daffodils" or "I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud," in 1807, drawing inspiration from an event that took place on April 15, 1802. During this time, Wordsworth and his sister Dorothy encountered a stunning sight of daffodils.
- 'For oft, when on my couch I lie
- In vacant or in pensive mood,
- They flash upon that inward eye
- Which is the bliss of solitude; And then my heart with pleasure fills,
- And dances with the daffodils.'
London, 1802
The poem "London, 1802" is a tribute to the great English poet John Milton. It is written in praise of Milton, highlighting his significance and the qualities he embodied.
- 'Milton! thou shouldst be living at this hour:
- England hath need of thee:
- she is a fen Of stagnant waters:
- altar, sword, and pen,
- Fireside, the heroic wealth of hall and bower,
- Have forfeited their ancient English dower
- Of inward happiness.'
The World is Too Much with Us
In this poem, Wordsworth criticizes England's preoccupation with materialism, which has led to a disconnection from nature. He attributes this shift to the impacts of the Industrial Revolution.
The World is Too Much with Us
Melancholic beauty - Pagan Philosophy: The poem reflects a pagan belief system, as Wordsworth references ancient Greek gods, specifically Proteus, a prophetic sea god, and Old Triton, a sea deity known for blowing a shell trumpet.
- The lines “Have sight of Proteus rising from the sea; / Or hear old Triton blow his wreathed horn” illustrate this connection to pagan mythology.
Resolution and Independence/ The Leech Gatherer
- The poem draws inspiration from Wordsworth's observations of a leech-gatherer near his home in Grasmere.
- It carries a tone of despair but concludes with a sense of hope.
- The poem reflects on the determination of an old man or the leech-gatherer.
- Wordsworth pays tribute to Thomas Chatterton, referring to him as a ‘marvellous boy’ and a ‘sleepless soul’.
- The lines ‘I thought of Chatterton, the marvellous Boy, / The sleepless Soul that perished in his pride;’ highlight this tribute.
The Rainbow/ My Heart Leaps Up
- This poem is important because it contains one of Wordsworth's most famous lines about the value of childhood.
- He expresses the idea that a child is the foundation of the adult, wishing for his days to be connected by natural piety.
- The lines ‘The Child is father of the Man; / And I could wish my days to be / Bound each to each by natural piety’ convey this sentiment.
The Thorn
- The poem is told by a sea captain who shares the story of Martha Ray, a woman whose dead child is buried under a thorn.
- It raises questions about the circumstances and timing of the child's death.
- Wordsworth explores various narratives to uncover this tragic event.
- The thorn may symbolize anything that brings pain, grief, or trouble.
- While Wordsworth emphasizes the beauty of the hill, he also focuses on the sorrowful aspect of the thorn.
- The poem reflects on the beauty surrounding the thorn, despite its association with sorrow.
- Many speculate about the circumstances of Martha Ray's child's death, questioning her involvement.
- The child's grave represents the grave of innocence within a tragic story.
The Idiot Boy
Shepherd's Romance Betty Foy’s son, who has a disability, is the subject of the ballad. He is innocent and loved by the community.
Michael
This pastoral poem portrays the solitary life of a shepherd named Michael, along with his wife and their only child, Luke.
Simon Lee: The Old Huntsman
The poem depicts both the past and present life of Simon Lee, the hunter.
The Excursion: Being a Portion of the Recluse, A Poem
This piece was intended to be the second part of The Recluse, which remains incomplete.
Contrasting Styles of Wordsworth and Coleridge
- Wordsworth focuses on the ordinary world and the impact of memory on the present in his poetry.
- Coleridge often conveys a sense of the mysterious, supernatural, and extraordinary in his works.
- While Coleridge gives the supernatural an everyday feel, Wordsworth emphasizes the present moment.
- Coleridge explores themes of enchanting romance and deep mystery from the past in his poetry.
- Works like Christabel and Kubla Khan showcase Coleridge's ability to create a world filled with romance and mystery.
- Coleridge's struggles with opium addiction had an impact on the writing of Kubla Khan.
- Both poets contributed to the creation of a new style of poetry, innovating in terms of form, language, and themes.
- Coleridge is known for his 'conversation poems', such as Frost at Midnight, where he engages in a dialogue with his son Hartley.
- In 1817, Coleridge published Biographia Literaria, which explores the poetic imagination and his views on literature.
The Rime of the Ancient Mariner
Oceanic Dreams - An elderly sailor, referred to as the Mariner, narrates the tale of the dreadful occurrences that transpired after he shot an albatross and fell under a curse.
- His vessel gets stranded in tranquil waters, resulting in nightmarish visions and an extended period of anguish.
- As a consequence of his deeds, he depletes his water supply.
- When the Mariner blesses certain sea creatures, his transgression against nature is absolved, enabling him to return home rejuvenated through shared suffering.
- The poem is segmented into seven parts and bears resemblance to a medieval ballad.
Famous Lines
- ‘Day after day, day after day,
- We stuck, nor breath nor motion;
- As idle as a painted ship
- Upon a painted ocean.’
- ‘Water, water everywhere,
- And all the boards did shrink;
- Nor any drop to drink.’
- The poem is both allegorical and symbolic.
- The absence of water signifies the dryness of spirit, while the becalmed ship symbolizes the aimless soul of a sinner awaiting redemption.
- The underlying moral is essentially Christian.
Key Moral Lines
- ‘He prayeth well, who loveth well Both man and bird and beast.’
- ‘He prayeth best, who loveth best All things both great and small; For the dear God, who loveth us, He made and loveth all.’
Kubla Khan, Or, A Vision in a Dream: A Fragment
- Coleridge illustrates an exotic landscape, often interpreted as a representation of the creative imagination.
- The poem commences with a juxtaposition between the river Alph, a potentially destructive force, and the pleasure-dome, a source of profound perception and understanding.
- Coleridge's battle with opium addiction had an impact on his writing, and it is believed that he composed Kubla Khan while under its influence.
- The poem remains an unfinished fragment ; Coleridge was perusing Samuel Purchas’s Purchas his Pilgrimes when he dozed off and experienced a dream that inspired the poem.
Kubla Khan:
Mystical Caverns - Kubla Khan is a poem written by Samuel Taylor Coleridge that describes a beautiful and grand palace built by Emperor Kubla Khan in the mythical land of Xanadu.
- The poem paints a vivid picture of the natural surroundings, including the sacred river Alph, which flows through vast and mysterious caverns before reaching a dark, sunless sea.
- Coleridge's use of rich imagery and descriptive language creates a sense of wonder and awe about the idyllic landscape and the grandeur of Kubla Khan's pleasure dome.
Christabel:
- Christabel is a poem written by Samuel Taylor Coleridge that follows the story of a young lady named Christabel and her encounter with a mysterious stranger named Geraldine.
- The poem is set in a medieval ballad form and serves as an allegory, blending dark and strange images from the past with elements of everyday life.
- Similar to Kubla Khan, Christabel is also an unfinished work.
- The narrative revolves around Christabel, the daughter of Sir Leoline, who meets Geraldine in the woods one night while praying for her fiancé.
- Geraldine, however, is revealed to be a wicked supernatural woman in disguise.
- As Christabel discovers Geraldine's deceit, she is silenced by dark magic, adding an element of intrigue and mystery to the poem.
Dejection: An Ode
- "Dejection: An Ode" is a poem by Samuel Taylor Coleridge expressing his emotions for Sara Hutchinson, a significant person in his life.
- Different versions of the poem reflect Coleridge's struggle to write poetry and his feelings of being stuck or paralyzed creatively.
- Published editions of the poem removed Coleridge's personal feelings and references to Hutchinson.
The poem opens with the narrator stating that he has lost his ability to write and talks about his state of poetic paralysis.
Introduction
Nature's Elegance The poem "This Lime-Tree Bower My Prison" by Samuel Taylor Coleridge revolves around the poet's feelings of being trapped while his friends enjoy nature. The poem explores themes of nature, imagination, and the bond between the poet and his friends. It reflects Coleridge's ability to find joy and beauty in his surroundings, even when physically confined.
Objective
The poet feels trapped under the lime tree while his friends enjoy nature, yet he finds solace in the beauty around him. The poem reflects on the power of imagination and the bond between friends.
This Lime-tree Bower my Prison
- The poem is a conversation piece that explores the bond between parents and children.
- The poet speaks to his son, Hartley: ‘My babe so beautiful! It thrills my heart with tender gladness, thus to look at thee.’
- Coleridge reflects on a moment when he was stuck under a lime tree while his friends enjoyed the countryside.
- The poem is addressed to Charles Lamb of the India House in London.
John Keats
- Keats, like many Romantic artists, died young without completing his poetic journey.
- He battled tuberculosis, which greatly affected his happiness; thus, death is a key theme in his poetry.
- Keats feels love and death deeply, recognizing their close connection.
- The main theme of his poetry is the struggle between the everyday experience of suffering and the everlasting beauty found in poetry.
- Keats is known for his ‘seduction poems,’ including La Belle Dame Sans Merci, meaning ‘a beautiful lady without mercy.’
Keats's Odes
- Keats’s odes are significant in English poetry, showcasing a rich variety of human experiences against life's fleeting nature.
- He is celebrated as a master of the ode form.
- The themes of his works include love, beauty, joy, nature, music, and the mortality of human life.
Keats on Poetry
Symbolic Imagery Keats believed that poetry should not be overly direct or persuasive. He felt that when poetry tries too hard to convince us of the poet's viewpoint, it becomes untrustworthy. Instead, Keats advocated for poetry that communicates its message through vivid images and symbols, allowing the reader to interpret the meaning without the poet's presence being too明显.