Textbook: The Age of Expansion, Absolutism, and Constitutionalism | AP European History - Grade 9 PDF Download

 Page 1


THE AGE OF EXPANSION, ABSOLUTISM,
AND CONSTITUTIONALISM
OVERVIEW
Europeans took the global lead in exploration and expansion primarily
because of “God, gold, and glory.” In the fifteenth century, a genuine
desire to bring the “heathen” people of foreign lands into the fold of the
Catholic Church existed. Religion, though, was not the only reason that
Europeans began to sail abroad. During the fifteenth century, Europeans
had access to non-European goods and cultures only through trade. Non-
Europeans controlled this trade, and prices were very high. Many Euro-
peans desired to bypass these traders and trade directly with the east, and
individual explorers and adventurers often wanted fame, fortune, and
the titles of nobility that might be lavished upon the leaders of successful
expeditions.
The technology of exploration had been improving throughout the
fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. The development of navigational de-
vices, such as the compass and the astrolabe, made better navigation pos-
sible for Europeans. Improvements in the field of cartography also con-
tributed to the ability of Europeans to venture farther away from home.
Finally, new and improved shipmaking techniques provided the vessels
that the Europeans needed to launch their expeditions.
During the Middle Ages and even during the Renaissance, kings
ruled their subjects with the consent of the nobles. As that practice began
to disappear, monarchs began to rule with more power and authority.
Often, attempts were made to limit the power of the monarchs, but a
few monarchs rose above these limitations. The greatest example of such
a leader was Louis XIV of France. He epitomized the absolute ruler. Fol-
lowing in his footsteps in the eighteenth century were several eastern
rulers who sought to be absolutists as well. While some nations devel-
oped strong monarchies, other nations, like England, developed a strong
parliamentary government. Around the same time, Spain experienced its
short-lived golden age.
Study Strategy
The phrase “God, gold, and
glory” is often used to sum up the
motivations of the Europeans
who went exploring during the
fifteenth and sixteenth centuries.
This is a good way to remember
the reasons they went—just
remember, their priorities were
not always in that order!
Page 2


THE AGE OF EXPANSION, ABSOLUTISM,
AND CONSTITUTIONALISM
OVERVIEW
Europeans took the global lead in exploration and expansion primarily
because of “God, gold, and glory.” In the fifteenth century, a genuine
desire to bring the “heathen” people of foreign lands into the fold of the
Catholic Church existed. Religion, though, was not the only reason that
Europeans began to sail abroad. During the fifteenth century, Europeans
had access to non-European goods and cultures only through trade. Non-
Europeans controlled this trade, and prices were very high. Many Euro-
peans desired to bypass these traders and trade directly with the east, and
individual explorers and adventurers often wanted fame, fortune, and
the titles of nobility that might be lavished upon the leaders of successful
expeditions.
The technology of exploration had been improving throughout the
fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. The development of navigational de-
vices, such as the compass and the astrolabe, made better navigation pos-
sible for Europeans. Improvements in the field of cartography also con-
tributed to the ability of Europeans to venture farther away from home.
Finally, new and improved shipmaking techniques provided the vessels
that the Europeans needed to launch their expeditions.
During the Middle Ages and even during the Renaissance, kings
ruled their subjects with the consent of the nobles. As that practice began
to disappear, monarchs began to rule with more power and authority.
Often, attempts were made to limit the power of the monarchs, but a
few monarchs rose above these limitations. The greatest example of such
a leader was Louis XIV of France. He epitomized the absolute ruler. Fol-
lowing in his footsteps in the eighteenth century were several eastern
rulers who sought to be absolutists as well. While some nations devel-
oped strong monarchies, other nations, like England, developed a strong
parliamentary government. Around the same time, Spain experienced its
short-lived golden age.
Study Strategy
The phrase “God, gold, and
glory” is often used to sum up the
motivations of the Europeans
who went exploring during the
fifteenth and sixteenth centuries.
This is a good way to remember
the reasons they went—just
remember, their priorities were
not always in that order!
EUROPEAN EXPANSION
Portugal led the way for overseas exploration during the fifteenth century
by becoming the first European nation to explore the coast of Africa. Prince
Henry the Navigator (1394–1460) explored Africa’s coast in search of a
Christian kingdom with which he could ally to fight against the Muslims
who controlled many of the trade routes. He also searched for new trade
opportunities for Portugal as well as opportunities to spread the Christian
faith. Henry founded a school on the Portuguese coast where men could
learn the skills of navigation and cartography. Within a few short years,
Portuguese ships began sailing further and further down the African coast.
The ships often returned with Africans who were sold as slaves. The Por-
tuguese built forts along the African coast and established a thriving trade
in gold, slaves, and ivory.
In 1487, Portuguese sailor Bartholomew Dias (c.1450–1500) became
the first explorer to round the southern tip of Africa known as the Cape of
Good Hope. In his lifetime, he explored many miles of Africa’s coastline.
Ten years later, Vasco da Gama (c.1469–1524) set sail from Portugal. He
rounded the Cape of Good Hope and sailed into Calicut on the coast of
India. After barely escaping from the Muslims who controlled the area, da
Gama returned to Portugal as a hero. He was the first European to reach
India by sea.
Gradually, Portugal sent more and more ships to India and estab-
lished lucrative trade routes. At first, Portugal was intimidated by the
Muslims and other traders that controlled the Indian trade. However,
Portugal developed better and more heavily armed ships that allowed them
to establish dominance. Perhaps the greatest improvement the Portuguese
made was the mounting of cannons on their ships. This allowed the ships
to battle from a distance instead of alongside enemy ships. Portugal’s trade
industry brought tremendous wealth, one that eventually rivaled that of
the Italians.
Whereas Portugal’s primary goal was the establishment of trade routes
and trading ports, the Spanish had a much grander scheme. Spain’s enor-
mous wealth provided them with more resources to explore the world.
One of the first men to tap these resources was a Genoese sailor named
Christopher Columbus (1451–1506). Columbus persuaded the Spanish
Queen Isabella to finance his expedition westward. Columbus convinced
the queen, as he was convinced, that a sea route to the east could be found
by sailing west across the Atlantic Ocean. In 1492, Columbus set sail west-
ward and landed in the Caribbean. He was convinced that he had landed
somewhere in the outer islands of Japan, or Chipangu, as he called it. In
his three subsequent voyages, Columbus explored all the major islands of
the Caribbean.
Vasco Nunez de Balboa (c.1475–1519) became the first European to
view the Pacific Ocean in 1513. He landed in Panama and traveled through
Note
Columbus did not really have to
convince anyone that the world
was round.  Most people knew
that the world was round, but
they had no idea how great the
earth ’s circumference actually was.
Page 3


THE AGE OF EXPANSION, ABSOLUTISM,
AND CONSTITUTIONALISM
OVERVIEW
Europeans took the global lead in exploration and expansion primarily
because of “God, gold, and glory.” In the fifteenth century, a genuine
desire to bring the “heathen” people of foreign lands into the fold of the
Catholic Church existed. Religion, though, was not the only reason that
Europeans began to sail abroad. During the fifteenth century, Europeans
had access to non-European goods and cultures only through trade. Non-
Europeans controlled this trade, and prices were very high. Many Euro-
peans desired to bypass these traders and trade directly with the east, and
individual explorers and adventurers often wanted fame, fortune, and
the titles of nobility that might be lavished upon the leaders of successful
expeditions.
The technology of exploration had been improving throughout the
fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. The development of navigational de-
vices, such as the compass and the astrolabe, made better navigation pos-
sible for Europeans. Improvements in the field of cartography also con-
tributed to the ability of Europeans to venture farther away from home.
Finally, new and improved shipmaking techniques provided the vessels
that the Europeans needed to launch their expeditions.
During the Middle Ages and even during the Renaissance, kings
ruled their subjects with the consent of the nobles. As that practice began
to disappear, monarchs began to rule with more power and authority.
Often, attempts were made to limit the power of the monarchs, but a
few monarchs rose above these limitations. The greatest example of such
a leader was Louis XIV of France. He epitomized the absolute ruler. Fol-
lowing in his footsteps in the eighteenth century were several eastern
rulers who sought to be absolutists as well. While some nations devel-
oped strong monarchies, other nations, like England, developed a strong
parliamentary government. Around the same time, Spain experienced its
short-lived golden age.
Study Strategy
The phrase “God, gold, and
glory” is often used to sum up the
motivations of the Europeans
who went exploring during the
fifteenth and sixteenth centuries.
This is a good way to remember
the reasons they went—just
remember, their priorities were
not always in that order!
EUROPEAN EXPANSION
Portugal led the way for overseas exploration during the fifteenth century
by becoming the first European nation to explore the coast of Africa. Prince
Henry the Navigator (1394–1460) explored Africa’s coast in search of a
Christian kingdom with which he could ally to fight against the Muslims
who controlled many of the trade routes. He also searched for new trade
opportunities for Portugal as well as opportunities to spread the Christian
faith. Henry founded a school on the Portuguese coast where men could
learn the skills of navigation and cartography. Within a few short years,
Portuguese ships began sailing further and further down the African coast.
The ships often returned with Africans who were sold as slaves. The Por-
tuguese built forts along the African coast and established a thriving trade
in gold, slaves, and ivory.
In 1487, Portuguese sailor Bartholomew Dias (c.1450–1500) became
the first explorer to round the southern tip of Africa known as the Cape of
Good Hope. In his lifetime, he explored many miles of Africa’s coastline.
Ten years later, Vasco da Gama (c.1469–1524) set sail from Portugal. He
rounded the Cape of Good Hope and sailed into Calicut on the coast of
India. After barely escaping from the Muslims who controlled the area, da
Gama returned to Portugal as a hero. He was the first European to reach
India by sea.
Gradually, Portugal sent more and more ships to India and estab-
lished lucrative trade routes. At first, Portugal was intimidated by the
Muslims and other traders that controlled the Indian trade. However,
Portugal developed better and more heavily armed ships that allowed them
to establish dominance. Perhaps the greatest improvement the Portuguese
made was the mounting of cannons on their ships. This allowed the ships
to battle from a distance instead of alongside enemy ships. Portugal’s trade
industry brought tremendous wealth, one that eventually rivaled that of
the Italians.
Whereas Portugal’s primary goal was the establishment of trade routes
and trading ports, the Spanish had a much grander scheme. Spain’s enor-
mous wealth provided them with more resources to explore the world.
One of the first men to tap these resources was a Genoese sailor named
Christopher Columbus (1451–1506). Columbus persuaded the Spanish
Queen Isabella to finance his expedition westward. Columbus convinced
the queen, as he was convinced, that a sea route to the east could be found
by sailing west across the Atlantic Ocean. In 1492, Columbus set sail west-
ward and landed in the Caribbean. He was convinced that he had landed
somewhere in the outer islands of Japan, or Chipangu, as he called it. In
his three subsequent voyages, Columbus explored all the major islands of
the Caribbean.
Vasco Nunez de Balboa (c.1475–1519) became the first European to
view the Pacific Ocean in 1513. He landed in Panama and traveled through
Note
Columbus did not really have to
convince anyone that the world
was round.  Most people knew
that the world was round, but
they had no idea how great the
earth ’s circumference actually was.
THE AGE OF EXPANSION, ABSOLUTISM, AND CONSTITUTIONALISM
dense jungles across the isthmus until he reached the great sea, which he
named the South Sea. Several years later, Ferdinand Magellan (1480–1521)
rounded the southern tip of South America, crossed the Pacific Ocean,
and sailed to the Philippine Islands. Unfortunately, Magellan died in the
Philippines at the hands of the natives. One of his original five ships con-
tinued the journey westward and sailed all the way back to Spain. Al-
though Magellan did not make the entire journey, his name is associated
with the first circumnavigation of the globe.
Sponsored by private, rather than state, funds, the Spanish conquista-
dores, or conquerors, set out to find wealth, fame, and power in the unex-
plored lands of the New World. In 1519, Hernan Cortes (1485–1547),
accompanied by his troops, landed in Mexico. There he encountered the
great Aztec civilization and the Aztec leader, Montezuma. The Spaniards,
dressed in armor and riding atop horses, amazed the Aztecs. The Aztecs
believed the Spaniards were sent by the god Quetzlcoatl, so they showered
the Spaniards with gifts of gold and precious stones. Things went bad, and
Cortes captured Montezuma, who died while in the custody of Cortes.
Cortes’ men destroyed many of the Aztec temples and buildings. Within
three years, the conquistadores had wiped out the once-mighty Aztecs.
The European weapons and diseases proved to be too much for the Az-
tecs. Those who didn’t die of disease, brought over from Europe by the
explorers, died at the hands of Cortes’ men. Because of Cortes’
expedition, Spain eventually controlled all of northern Mexico. Under the
leadership of Francisco Pizarro (c.1476–1541), Spain established its domi-
nance in western Latin America by destroying the Inca empire in 1532. In
the years that followed, the Spaniards established colonies in the New W orld
and searched for gold and silver. The pope granted Spain the
ecclesiastical rights to the New World. As a result, Spain sent Catholic
missionaries to the New World to Christianize the natives and to add
souls to the Spanish empire.
The overseas expansion by Portugal and Spain had both positive and
negative consequences. The trade developed by the two countries boosted
their economies and introduced their subjects to many new goods and
products. However, so much gold and silver flowed into Europe that Eu-
rope began to suffer from inflation. This inflation, coupled with the huge
increase in population, contributed to what is generally referred to as the
Price Revolution. However, the greatest negative consequence of the Eu-
ropean expansion was the loss not only of the lives of the Indians but also
of the civilizations.
THE RISE OF ABSOLUTISM IN FRANCE
With the death of Louis XIII in 1643, 5 year-old Louis XIV (1638–1715,
king 1643–1715) ascended to the French throne. Louis’ mother chose
Page 4


THE AGE OF EXPANSION, ABSOLUTISM,
AND CONSTITUTIONALISM
OVERVIEW
Europeans took the global lead in exploration and expansion primarily
because of “God, gold, and glory.” In the fifteenth century, a genuine
desire to bring the “heathen” people of foreign lands into the fold of the
Catholic Church existed. Religion, though, was not the only reason that
Europeans began to sail abroad. During the fifteenth century, Europeans
had access to non-European goods and cultures only through trade. Non-
Europeans controlled this trade, and prices were very high. Many Euro-
peans desired to bypass these traders and trade directly with the east, and
individual explorers and adventurers often wanted fame, fortune, and
the titles of nobility that might be lavished upon the leaders of successful
expeditions.
The technology of exploration had been improving throughout the
fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. The development of navigational de-
vices, such as the compass and the astrolabe, made better navigation pos-
sible for Europeans. Improvements in the field of cartography also con-
tributed to the ability of Europeans to venture farther away from home.
Finally, new and improved shipmaking techniques provided the vessels
that the Europeans needed to launch their expeditions.
During the Middle Ages and even during the Renaissance, kings
ruled their subjects with the consent of the nobles. As that practice began
to disappear, monarchs began to rule with more power and authority.
Often, attempts were made to limit the power of the monarchs, but a
few monarchs rose above these limitations. The greatest example of such
a leader was Louis XIV of France. He epitomized the absolute ruler. Fol-
lowing in his footsteps in the eighteenth century were several eastern
rulers who sought to be absolutists as well. While some nations devel-
oped strong monarchies, other nations, like England, developed a strong
parliamentary government. Around the same time, Spain experienced its
short-lived golden age.
Study Strategy
The phrase “God, gold, and
glory” is often used to sum up the
motivations of the Europeans
who went exploring during the
fifteenth and sixteenth centuries.
This is a good way to remember
the reasons they went—just
remember, their priorities were
not always in that order!
EUROPEAN EXPANSION
Portugal led the way for overseas exploration during the fifteenth century
by becoming the first European nation to explore the coast of Africa. Prince
Henry the Navigator (1394–1460) explored Africa’s coast in search of a
Christian kingdom with which he could ally to fight against the Muslims
who controlled many of the trade routes. He also searched for new trade
opportunities for Portugal as well as opportunities to spread the Christian
faith. Henry founded a school on the Portuguese coast where men could
learn the skills of navigation and cartography. Within a few short years,
Portuguese ships began sailing further and further down the African coast.
The ships often returned with Africans who were sold as slaves. The Por-
tuguese built forts along the African coast and established a thriving trade
in gold, slaves, and ivory.
In 1487, Portuguese sailor Bartholomew Dias (c.1450–1500) became
the first explorer to round the southern tip of Africa known as the Cape of
Good Hope. In his lifetime, he explored many miles of Africa’s coastline.
Ten years later, Vasco da Gama (c.1469–1524) set sail from Portugal. He
rounded the Cape of Good Hope and sailed into Calicut on the coast of
India. After barely escaping from the Muslims who controlled the area, da
Gama returned to Portugal as a hero. He was the first European to reach
India by sea.
Gradually, Portugal sent more and more ships to India and estab-
lished lucrative trade routes. At first, Portugal was intimidated by the
Muslims and other traders that controlled the Indian trade. However,
Portugal developed better and more heavily armed ships that allowed them
to establish dominance. Perhaps the greatest improvement the Portuguese
made was the mounting of cannons on their ships. This allowed the ships
to battle from a distance instead of alongside enemy ships. Portugal’s trade
industry brought tremendous wealth, one that eventually rivaled that of
the Italians.
Whereas Portugal’s primary goal was the establishment of trade routes
and trading ports, the Spanish had a much grander scheme. Spain’s enor-
mous wealth provided them with more resources to explore the world.
One of the first men to tap these resources was a Genoese sailor named
Christopher Columbus (1451–1506). Columbus persuaded the Spanish
Queen Isabella to finance his expedition westward. Columbus convinced
the queen, as he was convinced, that a sea route to the east could be found
by sailing west across the Atlantic Ocean. In 1492, Columbus set sail west-
ward and landed in the Caribbean. He was convinced that he had landed
somewhere in the outer islands of Japan, or Chipangu, as he called it. In
his three subsequent voyages, Columbus explored all the major islands of
the Caribbean.
Vasco Nunez de Balboa (c.1475–1519) became the first European to
view the Pacific Ocean in 1513. He landed in Panama and traveled through
Note
Columbus did not really have to
convince anyone that the world
was round.  Most people knew
that the world was round, but
they had no idea how great the
earth ’s circumference actually was.
THE AGE OF EXPANSION, ABSOLUTISM, AND CONSTITUTIONALISM
dense jungles across the isthmus until he reached the great sea, which he
named the South Sea. Several years later, Ferdinand Magellan (1480–1521)
rounded the southern tip of South America, crossed the Pacific Ocean,
and sailed to the Philippine Islands. Unfortunately, Magellan died in the
Philippines at the hands of the natives. One of his original five ships con-
tinued the journey westward and sailed all the way back to Spain. Al-
though Magellan did not make the entire journey, his name is associated
with the first circumnavigation of the globe.
Sponsored by private, rather than state, funds, the Spanish conquista-
dores, or conquerors, set out to find wealth, fame, and power in the unex-
plored lands of the New World. In 1519, Hernan Cortes (1485–1547),
accompanied by his troops, landed in Mexico. There he encountered the
great Aztec civilization and the Aztec leader, Montezuma. The Spaniards,
dressed in armor and riding atop horses, amazed the Aztecs. The Aztecs
believed the Spaniards were sent by the god Quetzlcoatl, so they showered
the Spaniards with gifts of gold and precious stones. Things went bad, and
Cortes captured Montezuma, who died while in the custody of Cortes.
Cortes’ men destroyed many of the Aztec temples and buildings. Within
three years, the conquistadores had wiped out the once-mighty Aztecs.
The European weapons and diseases proved to be too much for the Az-
tecs. Those who didn’t die of disease, brought over from Europe by the
explorers, died at the hands of Cortes’ men. Because of Cortes’
expedition, Spain eventually controlled all of northern Mexico. Under the
leadership of Francisco Pizarro (c.1476–1541), Spain established its domi-
nance in western Latin America by destroying the Inca empire in 1532. In
the years that followed, the Spaniards established colonies in the New W orld
and searched for gold and silver. The pope granted Spain the
ecclesiastical rights to the New World. As a result, Spain sent Catholic
missionaries to the New World to Christianize the natives and to add
souls to the Spanish empire.
The overseas expansion by Portugal and Spain had both positive and
negative consequences. The trade developed by the two countries boosted
their economies and introduced their subjects to many new goods and
products. However, so much gold and silver flowed into Europe that Eu-
rope began to suffer from inflation. This inflation, coupled with the huge
increase in population, contributed to what is generally referred to as the
Price Revolution. However, the greatest negative consequence of the Eu-
ropean expansion was the loss not only of the lives of the Indians but also
of the civilizations.
THE RISE OF ABSOLUTISM IN FRANCE
With the death of Louis XIII in 1643, 5 year-old Louis XIV (1638–1715,
king 1643–1715) ascended to the French throne. Louis’ mother chose
Cardinal Mazarin as his regent. Mazarin was not as shrewd as Cardinal
Richelieu, who served as the most important adviser to Louis XIII. Dur-
ing Louis XIV’s early years as king, he witnessed the Fronde, rebellions
that impressed upon Louis the need to tighten royal authority in France.
After Mazarin’s death, Louis was left to deal with the aristocracy, who were
growing resentful of the growing power of the monarchy. T o deal with the
aristocracy, Louis adopted the concept of the divine right of kings. Accord-
ing to Bishop Bossuet, one of Louis’ advisers, the king was chosen by God,
and no one but God had the right to judge or question the king. This
established the absolute sovereignty of Louis and his monarchy. The fa-
mous line L ’etat, c’est moi is often attributed to Louis. T ranslated “I am the
state,” this line represents the mindset of Louis XIV.
Louis chose Jean-Baptiste Colbert (1619–1683) to administer the
government of France. Colbert played a pivotal role in centralizing the
monarchy of France. One of the ways Colbert did so was through the
implementation of a mercantilistic economic policy. Colbert reshaped the
French economy through government control of industry and trade. He
organized factories and systems of production, trading companies and
colonies, and intricate systems of canals and roadways. By the 1680s, France
had trading colonies as far away as Canada and the Caribbean. All of his
new policies helped put gold into the state coffers.
Louis decided to strengthen his grip on France in addition to con-
trolling its economy. Louis believed that a unified France had room for
only one religion. Louis also believed that more than one religion could
not coexist in France. Therefore, Louis revoked the Edict of Nantes, which
had allowed Calvinists to worship freely. Louis closed Huguenot institu-
tions and stripped the Huguenots of their rights. Many Huguenots were
exiled from France altogether.
Louis XIV took control of the military actions of the state, too. He
had a strong desire to increase the size of his kingdom, and he used mili-
tary might to do so. Louis used the money in his coffers to establish a vast,
professional army, and he had great success early in his military campaigns.
Parts of Germany and the surrounding area were added to French hold-
ings. However, by the end of the seventeenth century and the beginning
of the eighteenth century, the powers of Europe joined together to con-
tain Louis’ aggression.
By establishing absolute control over every aspect of the government,
Louis epitomized the absolute monarch. As king, he controlled the eco-
nomics, religion, foreign and domestic policies, and military exploits of
France. Louis ran the state and acted as if the state were there to serve him.
He used the money in his royal coffers to finance not only his military
expeditions, but also his extravagant lifestyle. He built a magnificent pal-
ace at Versailles that was home to thousands. He surrounded himself with
fantastic art and beautiful landscaping. He used the wealth of the nation
to flaunt his power for all to see. Louis also used his extraordinary wealth
to intimidate foreigners who visited France.
Note
One of the characteristics of an
absolute government was a
professional standing army like
the one employed by Louis XIV.
Page 5


THE AGE OF EXPANSION, ABSOLUTISM,
AND CONSTITUTIONALISM
OVERVIEW
Europeans took the global lead in exploration and expansion primarily
because of “God, gold, and glory.” In the fifteenth century, a genuine
desire to bring the “heathen” people of foreign lands into the fold of the
Catholic Church existed. Religion, though, was not the only reason that
Europeans began to sail abroad. During the fifteenth century, Europeans
had access to non-European goods and cultures only through trade. Non-
Europeans controlled this trade, and prices were very high. Many Euro-
peans desired to bypass these traders and trade directly with the east, and
individual explorers and adventurers often wanted fame, fortune, and
the titles of nobility that might be lavished upon the leaders of successful
expeditions.
The technology of exploration had been improving throughout the
fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. The development of navigational de-
vices, such as the compass and the astrolabe, made better navigation pos-
sible for Europeans. Improvements in the field of cartography also con-
tributed to the ability of Europeans to venture farther away from home.
Finally, new and improved shipmaking techniques provided the vessels
that the Europeans needed to launch their expeditions.
During the Middle Ages and even during the Renaissance, kings
ruled their subjects with the consent of the nobles. As that practice began
to disappear, monarchs began to rule with more power and authority.
Often, attempts were made to limit the power of the monarchs, but a
few monarchs rose above these limitations. The greatest example of such
a leader was Louis XIV of France. He epitomized the absolute ruler. Fol-
lowing in his footsteps in the eighteenth century were several eastern
rulers who sought to be absolutists as well. While some nations devel-
oped strong monarchies, other nations, like England, developed a strong
parliamentary government. Around the same time, Spain experienced its
short-lived golden age.
Study Strategy
The phrase “God, gold, and
glory” is often used to sum up the
motivations of the Europeans
who went exploring during the
fifteenth and sixteenth centuries.
This is a good way to remember
the reasons they went—just
remember, their priorities were
not always in that order!
EUROPEAN EXPANSION
Portugal led the way for overseas exploration during the fifteenth century
by becoming the first European nation to explore the coast of Africa. Prince
Henry the Navigator (1394–1460) explored Africa’s coast in search of a
Christian kingdom with which he could ally to fight against the Muslims
who controlled many of the trade routes. He also searched for new trade
opportunities for Portugal as well as opportunities to spread the Christian
faith. Henry founded a school on the Portuguese coast where men could
learn the skills of navigation and cartography. Within a few short years,
Portuguese ships began sailing further and further down the African coast.
The ships often returned with Africans who were sold as slaves. The Por-
tuguese built forts along the African coast and established a thriving trade
in gold, slaves, and ivory.
In 1487, Portuguese sailor Bartholomew Dias (c.1450–1500) became
the first explorer to round the southern tip of Africa known as the Cape of
Good Hope. In his lifetime, he explored many miles of Africa’s coastline.
Ten years later, Vasco da Gama (c.1469–1524) set sail from Portugal. He
rounded the Cape of Good Hope and sailed into Calicut on the coast of
India. After barely escaping from the Muslims who controlled the area, da
Gama returned to Portugal as a hero. He was the first European to reach
India by sea.
Gradually, Portugal sent more and more ships to India and estab-
lished lucrative trade routes. At first, Portugal was intimidated by the
Muslims and other traders that controlled the Indian trade. However,
Portugal developed better and more heavily armed ships that allowed them
to establish dominance. Perhaps the greatest improvement the Portuguese
made was the mounting of cannons on their ships. This allowed the ships
to battle from a distance instead of alongside enemy ships. Portugal’s trade
industry brought tremendous wealth, one that eventually rivaled that of
the Italians.
Whereas Portugal’s primary goal was the establishment of trade routes
and trading ports, the Spanish had a much grander scheme. Spain’s enor-
mous wealth provided them with more resources to explore the world.
One of the first men to tap these resources was a Genoese sailor named
Christopher Columbus (1451–1506). Columbus persuaded the Spanish
Queen Isabella to finance his expedition westward. Columbus convinced
the queen, as he was convinced, that a sea route to the east could be found
by sailing west across the Atlantic Ocean. In 1492, Columbus set sail west-
ward and landed in the Caribbean. He was convinced that he had landed
somewhere in the outer islands of Japan, or Chipangu, as he called it. In
his three subsequent voyages, Columbus explored all the major islands of
the Caribbean.
Vasco Nunez de Balboa (c.1475–1519) became the first European to
view the Pacific Ocean in 1513. He landed in Panama and traveled through
Note
Columbus did not really have to
convince anyone that the world
was round.  Most people knew
that the world was round, but
they had no idea how great the
earth ’s circumference actually was.
THE AGE OF EXPANSION, ABSOLUTISM, AND CONSTITUTIONALISM
dense jungles across the isthmus until he reached the great sea, which he
named the South Sea. Several years later, Ferdinand Magellan (1480–1521)
rounded the southern tip of South America, crossed the Pacific Ocean,
and sailed to the Philippine Islands. Unfortunately, Magellan died in the
Philippines at the hands of the natives. One of his original five ships con-
tinued the journey westward and sailed all the way back to Spain. Al-
though Magellan did not make the entire journey, his name is associated
with the first circumnavigation of the globe.
Sponsored by private, rather than state, funds, the Spanish conquista-
dores, or conquerors, set out to find wealth, fame, and power in the unex-
plored lands of the New World. In 1519, Hernan Cortes (1485–1547),
accompanied by his troops, landed in Mexico. There he encountered the
great Aztec civilization and the Aztec leader, Montezuma. The Spaniards,
dressed in armor and riding atop horses, amazed the Aztecs. The Aztecs
believed the Spaniards were sent by the god Quetzlcoatl, so they showered
the Spaniards with gifts of gold and precious stones. Things went bad, and
Cortes captured Montezuma, who died while in the custody of Cortes.
Cortes’ men destroyed many of the Aztec temples and buildings. Within
three years, the conquistadores had wiped out the once-mighty Aztecs.
The European weapons and diseases proved to be too much for the Az-
tecs. Those who didn’t die of disease, brought over from Europe by the
explorers, died at the hands of Cortes’ men. Because of Cortes’
expedition, Spain eventually controlled all of northern Mexico. Under the
leadership of Francisco Pizarro (c.1476–1541), Spain established its domi-
nance in western Latin America by destroying the Inca empire in 1532. In
the years that followed, the Spaniards established colonies in the New W orld
and searched for gold and silver. The pope granted Spain the
ecclesiastical rights to the New World. As a result, Spain sent Catholic
missionaries to the New World to Christianize the natives and to add
souls to the Spanish empire.
The overseas expansion by Portugal and Spain had both positive and
negative consequences. The trade developed by the two countries boosted
their economies and introduced their subjects to many new goods and
products. However, so much gold and silver flowed into Europe that Eu-
rope began to suffer from inflation. This inflation, coupled with the huge
increase in population, contributed to what is generally referred to as the
Price Revolution. However, the greatest negative consequence of the Eu-
ropean expansion was the loss not only of the lives of the Indians but also
of the civilizations.
THE RISE OF ABSOLUTISM IN FRANCE
With the death of Louis XIII in 1643, 5 year-old Louis XIV (1638–1715,
king 1643–1715) ascended to the French throne. Louis’ mother chose
Cardinal Mazarin as his regent. Mazarin was not as shrewd as Cardinal
Richelieu, who served as the most important adviser to Louis XIII. Dur-
ing Louis XIV’s early years as king, he witnessed the Fronde, rebellions
that impressed upon Louis the need to tighten royal authority in France.
After Mazarin’s death, Louis was left to deal with the aristocracy, who were
growing resentful of the growing power of the monarchy. T o deal with the
aristocracy, Louis adopted the concept of the divine right of kings. Accord-
ing to Bishop Bossuet, one of Louis’ advisers, the king was chosen by God,
and no one but God had the right to judge or question the king. This
established the absolute sovereignty of Louis and his monarchy. The fa-
mous line L ’etat, c’est moi is often attributed to Louis. T ranslated “I am the
state,” this line represents the mindset of Louis XIV.
Louis chose Jean-Baptiste Colbert (1619–1683) to administer the
government of France. Colbert played a pivotal role in centralizing the
monarchy of France. One of the ways Colbert did so was through the
implementation of a mercantilistic economic policy. Colbert reshaped the
French economy through government control of industry and trade. He
organized factories and systems of production, trading companies and
colonies, and intricate systems of canals and roadways. By the 1680s, France
had trading colonies as far away as Canada and the Caribbean. All of his
new policies helped put gold into the state coffers.
Louis decided to strengthen his grip on France in addition to con-
trolling its economy. Louis believed that a unified France had room for
only one religion. Louis also believed that more than one religion could
not coexist in France. Therefore, Louis revoked the Edict of Nantes, which
had allowed Calvinists to worship freely. Louis closed Huguenot institu-
tions and stripped the Huguenots of their rights. Many Huguenots were
exiled from France altogether.
Louis XIV took control of the military actions of the state, too. He
had a strong desire to increase the size of his kingdom, and he used mili-
tary might to do so. Louis used the money in his coffers to establish a vast,
professional army, and he had great success early in his military campaigns.
Parts of Germany and the surrounding area were added to French hold-
ings. However, by the end of the seventeenth century and the beginning
of the eighteenth century, the powers of Europe joined together to con-
tain Louis’ aggression.
By establishing absolute control over every aspect of the government,
Louis epitomized the absolute monarch. As king, he controlled the eco-
nomics, religion, foreign and domestic policies, and military exploits of
France. Louis ran the state and acted as if the state were there to serve him.
He used the money in his royal coffers to finance not only his military
expeditions, but also his extravagant lifestyle. He built a magnificent pal-
ace at Versailles that was home to thousands. He surrounded himself with
fantastic art and beautiful landscaping. He used the wealth of the nation
to flaunt his power for all to see. Louis also used his extraordinary wealth
to intimidate foreigners who visited France.
Note
One of the characteristics of an
absolute government was a
professional standing army like
the one employed by Louis XIV.
THE AGE OF EXPANSION, ABSOLUTISM, AND CONSTITUTIONALISM
THE RISE OF ABSOLUTISM IN THE EAST
When Alexis I of Russia died, his daughter Sophia ruled as regent for
Alexis’ two sons, Peter and Ivan. At the age of 17, Peter took control from
his sister and became Peter the Great (1672–1725, czar 1689–1725). Pe-
ter admired Western Europe and was determined to westernize Russia.
His first priority was the strengthening of the army and the creation of a
navy. He reorganized the government of Russia and divided Russia into
provinces. He required members of the nobility to serve in the military or
in some civil service position. After studying the policies of Western Euro-
pean nations, Peter attempted to install a mercantilistic economy in Rus-
sia by increasing exports and introducing new industries. However, when
those efforts did not produce enough money, he simply raised taxes.
Peter really began to take on the look of a Western absolutist when he
tried to gain control of the Russian Orthodox Church. Peter turned his
attention to architecture. Using the grand V ersailles as a model, Peter spent
vast sums of money on architecture and art that testified to the greatness
of Russia, just as Versailles did for France. Also, like a Western absolutist,
Peter used his military to attack other territories and make them his own,
as was the case in the Baltic region owned by Sweden.
THE RISE OF CONSTITUTIONALISM IN ENGLAND
England’s history ran a much different course than that of France. En-
gland had experienced relative success with monarchy rather early in its
history. The monarchy was solidified with the establishment of the T udor
dynasty in 1485. Henry VIII strengthened the position of the monarchy
in England, and his daughter, Elizabeth I, went on to become the most
successful of all the Tudor monarchs. However, the Tudor dynasty ended
when Elizabeth died in 1603 and her cousin ascended to the throne of
England. James VI of Scotland (1566–1625, King of Scotland 1567–1625,
King of England 1603–1625), who became known as James I of England,
began his reign on the wrong foot with Parliament. In his first meeting
with Parliament, James, in an arrogant manner, informed them that he
did not want to be challenged. Although James had the power to call and
dismiss Parliament, Parliament had control over the revenues of the land.
This antagonistic relationship between king and Parliament would later
play a major role in the historical development of England.
James’ son, Charles I (1600–1649), also ran into problems with Par-
liament. Parliament refused to grant Charles a lifetime of customs duties
and opted, instead, to grant him only one year’s worth. Charles found
money elsewhere and wasted it on a failed military expedition to Spain. T o
pay for his mistake, Charles required the wealthy to cover his expenses.
Several members of Parliament refused to pay, and they were jailed. In
Note
Eastern rulers, such as Peter the
Great, modeled their monar-
chies after the absolutism of
Louis XIV.
Note
James I was strongly influenced
by writings from France that
used the divine right of kings
concept to justify the strong
monarchy there.