Textbook: Political Processes and Power | AP Human Geography - Grade 9 PDF Download

 Page 1


UNIT 4: POLITICAL PATTERNS AND PROCESSES 191
UNIT 4
Political Patterns and Processes
Chapter 8 Political Processes and Power
Chapter 9 Political Boundaries and Forms of Governance
Chapter 10 Challenges in the Modern State
Unit Overview
T oday’ s political map consists mostly of independent states in which all territory 
is connected, and most people share a language and other cultural traits. This 
was not true in the past. Many states were sprawling, diverse empires, such as 
the Ottoman Empire in the Middle East or the British Empire that included 
people of many cultures. At the same time, many cultural groups were divided 
into several states, such as the hundreds of small German states in central 
Europe or the various groups of nomads in central Asia.
Political Power Over a Territory
A government demonstrates its power over a geographic area by enforcing laws 
that govern individual behavior and affect how resources are used. Boundaries 
separate territories at various scales, from those that divide the world into 
countries to those that determine where students attend school.
Political power can be divided in several ways. In a country, it can be 
centralized in one national government or divided between the national 
government and local governments. In the United States, local power can be 
centralized under regional or county governments or divided into a patchwork 
of cities, school districts, and other types of districts.
Challenges for States
Independent states face challenges from globalization. Transnational 
corporations, international organizations, and global environmental problems 
make the boundaries around a state less important than in the past. States also 
face challenges from within. Regions with distinctive cultural groups, such as 
Quebec and Nunavut in Canada, have successfully argued for more autonomy.
ENDURING UNDERSTANDINGS
1.  The political organization of space results from historical and current processes, 
events, and ideas. (PSO-4)
2.  Political boundaries and divisions of governance, between states and within them, 
reflect balances of power that have been negotiated or imposed. (IMP-4)
3.  Political, economic, cultural, or technological changes can challenge state 
sovereignty. (SPS-4)
Source: AP® Human Geography Course and Exam Description. Effective Fall 2020. (College Board).
Page 2


UNIT 4: POLITICAL PATTERNS AND PROCESSES 191
UNIT 4
Political Patterns and Processes
Chapter 8 Political Processes and Power
Chapter 9 Political Boundaries and Forms of Governance
Chapter 10 Challenges in the Modern State
Unit Overview
T oday’ s political map consists mostly of independent states in which all territory 
is connected, and most people share a language and other cultural traits. This 
was not true in the past. Many states were sprawling, diverse empires, such as 
the Ottoman Empire in the Middle East or the British Empire that included 
people of many cultures. At the same time, many cultural groups were divided 
into several states, such as the hundreds of small German states in central 
Europe or the various groups of nomads in central Asia.
Political Power Over a Territory
A government demonstrates its power over a geographic area by enforcing laws 
that govern individual behavior and affect how resources are used. Boundaries 
separate territories at various scales, from those that divide the world into 
countries to those that determine where students attend school.
Political power can be divided in several ways. In a country, it can be 
centralized in one national government or divided between the national 
government and local governments. In the United States, local power can be 
centralized under regional or county governments or divided into a patchwork 
of cities, school districts, and other types of districts.
Challenges for States
Independent states face challenges from globalization. Transnational 
corporations, international organizations, and global environmental problems 
make the boundaries around a state less important than in the past. States also 
face challenges from within. Regions with distinctive cultural groups, such as 
Quebec and Nunavut in Canada, have successfully argued for more autonomy.
ENDURING UNDERSTANDINGS
1.  The political organization of space results from historical and current processes, 
events, and ideas. (PSO-4)
2.  Political boundaries and divisions of governance, between states and within them, 
reflect balances of power that have been negotiated or imposed. (IMP-4)
3.  Political, economic, cultural, or technological changes can challenge state 
sovereignty. (SPS-4)
Source: AP® Human Geography Course and Exam Description. Effective Fall 2020. (College Board).
192 CHAPTER 8: POLITICAL PROCESSES AND POWER
Political Processes and Power
Topics 4.1–4.3
Topic 4.1 Introduction to Political Geography
Learning Objective: For world political maps:
a. Define the different types of political entities. 
b. Identify a contemporary example of political entities. (PSO-4.A)
Topic 4.2 Political Processes
Learning Objective: Explain the processes that have shaped contemporary 
political geography. (PSO-4.B)
Topic 4.3 Political Power and Territoriality
Learning Objective: Describe the concepts of political power and territoriality as 
used by geographers. (PSO-4.C)
[Soviet] General Secretary Gorbachev, if you seek peace, if you 
seek prosperity for the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe, if you seek 
liberalization, come here to this gate. Mr. Gorbachev, open this gate! 
Mr. Gorbachev, tear down this wall!
—President Ronald Reagan, speech, 1987
Source: David Palmer
The Berlin Wall has mostly been torn down after the unification of East and West Germany 
in 1989. Parts of the wall have been preserved to express messages of unification and 
remembrance. (See Topic 4.2 for how political processes shape boundaries.)
CHAPTER 8
Page 3


UNIT 4: POLITICAL PATTERNS AND PROCESSES 191
UNIT 4
Political Patterns and Processes
Chapter 8 Political Processes and Power
Chapter 9 Political Boundaries and Forms of Governance
Chapter 10 Challenges in the Modern State
Unit Overview
T oday’ s political map consists mostly of independent states in which all territory 
is connected, and most people share a language and other cultural traits. This 
was not true in the past. Many states were sprawling, diverse empires, such as 
the Ottoman Empire in the Middle East or the British Empire that included 
people of many cultures. At the same time, many cultural groups were divided 
into several states, such as the hundreds of small German states in central 
Europe or the various groups of nomads in central Asia.
Political Power Over a Territory
A government demonstrates its power over a geographic area by enforcing laws 
that govern individual behavior and affect how resources are used. Boundaries 
separate territories at various scales, from those that divide the world into 
countries to those that determine where students attend school.
Political power can be divided in several ways. In a country, it can be 
centralized in one national government or divided between the national 
government and local governments. In the United States, local power can be 
centralized under regional or county governments or divided into a patchwork 
of cities, school districts, and other types of districts.
Challenges for States
Independent states face challenges from globalization. Transnational 
corporations, international organizations, and global environmental problems 
make the boundaries around a state less important than in the past. States also 
face challenges from within. Regions with distinctive cultural groups, such as 
Quebec and Nunavut in Canada, have successfully argued for more autonomy.
ENDURING UNDERSTANDINGS
1.  The political organization of space results from historical and current processes, 
events, and ideas. (PSO-4)
2.  Political boundaries and divisions of governance, between states and within them, 
reflect balances of power that have been negotiated or imposed. (IMP-4)
3.  Political, economic, cultural, or technological changes can challenge state 
sovereignty. (SPS-4)
Source: AP® Human Geography Course and Exam Description. Effective Fall 2020. (College Board).
192 CHAPTER 8: POLITICAL PROCESSES AND POWER
Political Processes and Power
Topics 4.1–4.3
Topic 4.1 Introduction to Political Geography
Learning Objective: For world political maps:
a. Define the different types of political entities. 
b. Identify a contemporary example of political entities. (PSO-4.A)
Topic 4.2 Political Processes
Learning Objective: Explain the processes that have shaped contemporary 
political geography. (PSO-4.B)
Topic 4.3 Political Power and Territoriality
Learning Objective: Describe the concepts of political power and territoriality as 
used by geographers. (PSO-4.C)
[Soviet] General Secretary Gorbachev, if you seek peace, if you 
seek prosperity for the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe, if you seek 
liberalization, come here to this gate. Mr. Gorbachev, open this gate! 
Mr. Gorbachev, tear down this wall!
—President Ronald Reagan, speech, 1987
Source: David Palmer
The Berlin Wall has mostly been torn down after the unification of East and West Germany 
in 1989. Parts of the wall have been preserved to express messages of unification and 
remembrance. (See Topic 4.2 for how political processes shape boundaries.)
CHAPTER 8
4.1: INTRODUCTION TO POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY 193
4.1
Introduction to Political Geography
Essential Question: What are the different types of political entities, 
with current examples, on a world map?
Empires and kingdoms were common in most of the world for the past 
2,000 years. However, global forces, wars, and changing ideas about political 
power, economics, and self-rule have reshaped the world map over the last few 
centuries.
The Structure of the Contemporary Political Map
People often use the words country, state, and nation to mean the same thing. 
But they have different meanings. Country is the most general term. It is often 
used to describe any political entity that is independent from the control of any 
other entity. State and nation have more precise meanings.
Independent States as Building Blocks
Political units exist at various scales. In the United States, for example, a person 
resides in several political units at once: maybe a town or city, a county, a state, 
and finally, in the country as a whole. The term state can be confusing because 
it can be used in two different ways. In this example, it refers to one of the 50 
states that make up the United States. But in international relations, a state is 
the largest political unit, the formal term for a country. To be defined as a state, 
several criteria must be met:
• has a defined boundary
• contains a permanent population
• maintains sovereignty (defined below) over its domestic and international 
affairs
• is recognized by other states
The United States recognizes 195 states based on these criteria, but 
the number can vary depending on which government or international 
organization makes the list. These four requirements are easily defined, but in 
the geopolitical arena, they can be difficult to recognize.
Understanding Sovereignty The power of a political unit, or government, 
to rule over its own affairs is known as sovereignty. It is a key principle in 
understanding how governments function. In order for a political unit to 
have legitimacy over its domestic and international affairs, it must maintain 
sovereignty over its own land. In the modern world, a territory must have 
Page 4


UNIT 4: POLITICAL PATTERNS AND PROCESSES 191
UNIT 4
Political Patterns and Processes
Chapter 8 Political Processes and Power
Chapter 9 Political Boundaries and Forms of Governance
Chapter 10 Challenges in the Modern State
Unit Overview
T oday’ s political map consists mostly of independent states in which all territory 
is connected, and most people share a language and other cultural traits. This 
was not true in the past. Many states were sprawling, diverse empires, such as 
the Ottoman Empire in the Middle East or the British Empire that included 
people of many cultures. At the same time, many cultural groups were divided 
into several states, such as the hundreds of small German states in central 
Europe or the various groups of nomads in central Asia.
Political Power Over a Territory
A government demonstrates its power over a geographic area by enforcing laws 
that govern individual behavior and affect how resources are used. Boundaries 
separate territories at various scales, from those that divide the world into 
countries to those that determine where students attend school.
Political power can be divided in several ways. In a country, it can be 
centralized in one national government or divided between the national 
government and local governments. In the United States, local power can be 
centralized under regional or county governments or divided into a patchwork 
of cities, school districts, and other types of districts.
Challenges for States
Independent states face challenges from globalization. Transnational 
corporations, international organizations, and global environmental problems 
make the boundaries around a state less important than in the past. States also 
face challenges from within. Regions with distinctive cultural groups, such as 
Quebec and Nunavut in Canada, have successfully argued for more autonomy.
ENDURING UNDERSTANDINGS
1.  The political organization of space results from historical and current processes, 
events, and ideas. (PSO-4)
2.  Political boundaries and divisions of governance, between states and within them, 
reflect balances of power that have been negotiated or imposed. (IMP-4)
3.  Political, economic, cultural, or technological changes can challenge state 
sovereignty. (SPS-4)
Source: AP® Human Geography Course and Exam Description. Effective Fall 2020. (College Board).
192 CHAPTER 8: POLITICAL PROCESSES AND POWER
Political Processes and Power
Topics 4.1–4.3
Topic 4.1 Introduction to Political Geography
Learning Objective: For world political maps:
a. Define the different types of political entities. 
b. Identify a contemporary example of political entities. (PSO-4.A)
Topic 4.2 Political Processes
Learning Objective: Explain the processes that have shaped contemporary 
political geography. (PSO-4.B)
Topic 4.3 Political Power and Territoriality
Learning Objective: Describe the concepts of political power and territoriality as 
used by geographers. (PSO-4.C)
[Soviet] General Secretary Gorbachev, if you seek peace, if you 
seek prosperity for the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe, if you seek 
liberalization, come here to this gate. Mr. Gorbachev, open this gate! 
Mr. Gorbachev, tear down this wall!
—President Ronald Reagan, speech, 1987
Source: David Palmer
The Berlin Wall has mostly been torn down after the unification of East and West Germany 
in 1989. Parts of the wall have been preserved to express messages of unification and 
remembrance. (See Topic 4.2 for how political processes shape boundaries.)
CHAPTER 8
4.1: INTRODUCTION TO POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY 193
4.1
Introduction to Political Geography
Essential Question: What are the different types of political entities, 
with current examples, on a world map?
Empires and kingdoms were common in most of the world for the past 
2,000 years. However, global forces, wars, and changing ideas about political 
power, economics, and self-rule have reshaped the world map over the last few 
centuries.
The Structure of the Contemporary Political Map
People often use the words country, state, and nation to mean the same thing. 
But they have different meanings. Country is the most general term. It is often 
used to describe any political entity that is independent from the control of any 
other entity. State and nation have more precise meanings.
Independent States as Building Blocks
Political units exist at various scales. In the United States, for example, a person 
resides in several political units at once: maybe a town or city, a county, a state, 
and finally, in the country as a whole. The term state can be confusing because 
it can be used in two different ways. In this example, it refers to one of the 50 
states that make up the United States. But in international relations, a state is 
the largest political unit, the formal term for a country. To be defined as a state, 
several criteria must be met:
• has a defined boundary
• contains a permanent population
• maintains sovereignty (defined below) over its domestic and international 
affairs
• is recognized by other states
The United States recognizes 195 states based on these criteria, but 
the number can vary depending on which government or international 
organization makes the list. These four requirements are easily defined, but in 
the geopolitical arena, they can be difficult to recognize.
Understanding Sovereignty The power of a political unit, or government, 
to rule over its own affairs is known as sovereignty. It is a key principle in 
understanding how governments function. In order for a political unit to 
have legitimacy over its domestic and international affairs, it must maintain 
sovereignty over its own land. In the modern world, a territory must have 
194 HUMAN GEOGRAPHY: AP
®
 EDITION
defined borders that have been legally established. No political unit can exist 
or claim sovereignty without a permanent population within its borders. In 
most cases, the people of a state have lived in a territory for generations, if 
not centuries. However, most states are multinational, or made up of several 
ethnicities and nationalities.
The Example of China Consider the complicated relationship between 
the People’ s Republic of China and the nearby island of Taiwan (the Republic of 
China). In 1949, China ended a long civil war. The victorious communist forces 
led by Mao Zedong established their capital in Beijing. More than 2 million 
supporters of the losing side, known as nationalists, retreated to Taiwan. 
China was divided between two governments, one on the mainland and one 
in Taiwan, and each considered itself China’s legitimate ruler. The government 
on the mainland never gave up its claim on Taiwan, and Taiwan never declared 
independence. 
Today, the government in Beijing rules more than 1.4 billion residents. 
T aiwan rules about 24 million, but it manages its own affairs and has diplomatic 
relations with about 20 countries.
China’s claim that Taiwan is nothing more than a renegade province is a 
direct challenge to Taiwan’s sovereignty. And since Taiwan is recognized by so 
few other states, it seems to be an effective challenge. Largely because of China’ s 
opposition, Taiwan is not a member of the United Nations (UN), and the case 
can be made that Taiwan does not fully meet the third and fourth criteria to be 
recognized as a state listed on the previous page.
Types of Political Entities
Often the term nation is interchangeably used with country; however, the terms 
are not identical. In general, a nation is a group of people who have certain 
things in common:
• a common cultural heritage
• a set of beliefs and values that unify them
• a traditional claim to a particular space as their homeland
• a desire to establish their own state or express self-rule in another way
Depending on how tightly one applies these standards, the number of 
nations ranges from a few hundred to several thousand. Many political entities 
combine aspects of nationhood and statehood.
Nation-States A nation of people who fulfill the qualifications of a state 
form a nation-state. Among the best examples of nation-states are Iceland 
and Japan. Icelanders make up 94 percent of its total population of 360,000. 
Scandinavian settlers founded Iceland on an island that had no indigenous 
population. Japanese account for 99 percent of the total population of its 128 
million permanent residents. A strong national identity coupled with strict 
immigration policies have maintained Japan as a nation-state.
Page 5


UNIT 4: POLITICAL PATTERNS AND PROCESSES 191
UNIT 4
Political Patterns and Processes
Chapter 8 Political Processes and Power
Chapter 9 Political Boundaries and Forms of Governance
Chapter 10 Challenges in the Modern State
Unit Overview
T oday’ s political map consists mostly of independent states in which all territory 
is connected, and most people share a language and other cultural traits. This 
was not true in the past. Many states were sprawling, diverse empires, such as 
the Ottoman Empire in the Middle East or the British Empire that included 
people of many cultures. At the same time, many cultural groups were divided 
into several states, such as the hundreds of small German states in central 
Europe or the various groups of nomads in central Asia.
Political Power Over a Territory
A government demonstrates its power over a geographic area by enforcing laws 
that govern individual behavior and affect how resources are used. Boundaries 
separate territories at various scales, from those that divide the world into 
countries to those that determine where students attend school.
Political power can be divided in several ways. In a country, it can be 
centralized in one national government or divided between the national 
government and local governments. In the United States, local power can be 
centralized under regional or county governments or divided into a patchwork 
of cities, school districts, and other types of districts.
Challenges for States
Independent states face challenges from globalization. Transnational 
corporations, international organizations, and global environmental problems 
make the boundaries around a state less important than in the past. States also 
face challenges from within. Regions with distinctive cultural groups, such as 
Quebec and Nunavut in Canada, have successfully argued for more autonomy.
ENDURING UNDERSTANDINGS
1.  The political organization of space results from historical and current processes, 
events, and ideas. (PSO-4)
2.  Political boundaries and divisions of governance, between states and within them, 
reflect balances of power that have been negotiated or imposed. (IMP-4)
3.  Political, economic, cultural, or technological changes can challenge state 
sovereignty. (SPS-4)
Source: AP® Human Geography Course and Exam Description. Effective Fall 2020. (College Board).
192 CHAPTER 8: POLITICAL PROCESSES AND POWER
Political Processes and Power
Topics 4.1–4.3
Topic 4.1 Introduction to Political Geography
Learning Objective: For world political maps:
a. Define the different types of political entities. 
b. Identify a contemporary example of political entities. (PSO-4.A)
Topic 4.2 Political Processes
Learning Objective: Explain the processes that have shaped contemporary 
political geography. (PSO-4.B)
Topic 4.3 Political Power and Territoriality
Learning Objective: Describe the concepts of political power and territoriality as 
used by geographers. (PSO-4.C)
[Soviet] General Secretary Gorbachev, if you seek peace, if you 
seek prosperity for the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe, if you seek 
liberalization, come here to this gate. Mr. Gorbachev, open this gate! 
Mr. Gorbachev, tear down this wall!
—President Ronald Reagan, speech, 1987
Source: David Palmer
The Berlin Wall has mostly been torn down after the unification of East and West Germany 
in 1989. Parts of the wall have been preserved to express messages of unification and 
remembrance. (See Topic 4.2 for how political processes shape boundaries.)
CHAPTER 8
4.1: INTRODUCTION TO POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY 193
4.1
Introduction to Political Geography
Essential Question: What are the different types of political entities, 
with current examples, on a world map?
Empires and kingdoms were common in most of the world for the past 
2,000 years. However, global forces, wars, and changing ideas about political 
power, economics, and self-rule have reshaped the world map over the last few 
centuries.
The Structure of the Contemporary Political Map
People often use the words country, state, and nation to mean the same thing. 
But they have different meanings. Country is the most general term. It is often 
used to describe any political entity that is independent from the control of any 
other entity. State and nation have more precise meanings.
Independent States as Building Blocks
Political units exist at various scales. In the United States, for example, a person 
resides in several political units at once: maybe a town or city, a county, a state, 
and finally, in the country as a whole. The term state can be confusing because 
it can be used in two different ways. In this example, it refers to one of the 50 
states that make up the United States. But in international relations, a state is 
the largest political unit, the formal term for a country. To be defined as a state, 
several criteria must be met:
• has a defined boundary
• contains a permanent population
• maintains sovereignty (defined below) over its domestic and international 
affairs
• is recognized by other states
The United States recognizes 195 states based on these criteria, but 
the number can vary depending on which government or international 
organization makes the list. These four requirements are easily defined, but in 
the geopolitical arena, they can be difficult to recognize.
Understanding Sovereignty The power of a political unit, or government, 
to rule over its own affairs is known as sovereignty. It is a key principle in 
understanding how governments function. In order for a political unit to 
have legitimacy over its domestic and international affairs, it must maintain 
sovereignty over its own land. In the modern world, a territory must have 
194 HUMAN GEOGRAPHY: AP
®
 EDITION
defined borders that have been legally established. No political unit can exist 
or claim sovereignty without a permanent population within its borders. In 
most cases, the people of a state have lived in a territory for generations, if 
not centuries. However, most states are multinational, or made up of several 
ethnicities and nationalities.
The Example of China Consider the complicated relationship between 
the People’ s Republic of China and the nearby island of Taiwan (the Republic of 
China). In 1949, China ended a long civil war. The victorious communist forces 
led by Mao Zedong established their capital in Beijing. More than 2 million 
supporters of the losing side, known as nationalists, retreated to Taiwan. 
China was divided between two governments, one on the mainland and one 
in Taiwan, and each considered itself China’s legitimate ruler. The government 
on the mainland never gave up its claim on Taiwan, and Taiwan never declared 
independence. 
Today, the government in Beijing rules more than 1.4 billion residents. 
T aiwan rules about 24 million, but it manages its own affairs and has diplomatic 
relations with about 20 countries.
China’s claim that Taiwan is nothing more than a renegade province is a 
direct challenge to Taiwan’s sovereignty. And since Taiwan is recognized by so 
few other states, it seems to be an effective challenge. Largely because of China’ s 
opposition, Taiwan is not a member of the United Nations (UN), and the case 
can be made that Taiwan does not fully meet the third and fourth criteria to be 
recognized as a state listed on the previous page.
Types of Political Entities
Often the term nation is interchangeably used with country; however, the terms 
are not identical. In general, a nation is a group of people who have certain 
things in common:
• a common cultural heritage
• a set of beliefs and values that unify them
• a traditional claim to a particular space as their homeland
• a desire to establish their own state or express self-rule in another way
Depending on how tightly one applies these standards, the number of 
nations ranges from a few hundred to several thousand. Many political entities 
combine aspects of nationhood and statehood.
Nation-States A nation of people who fulfill the qualifications of a state 
form a nation-state. Among the best examples of nation-states are Iceland 
and Japan. Icelanders make up 94 percent of its total population of 360,000. 
Scandinavian settlers founded Iceland on an island that had no indigenous 
population. Japanese account for 99 percent of the total population of its 128 
million permanent residents. A strong national identity coupled with strict 
immigration policies have maintained Japan as a nation-state.
195 4.1: INTRODUCTION TO POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY
DISTINGUISHING NATIONS AND STATES
Nation
• Kurds
• Catalans
• Scots
Nation-State
• Japan
• France
• Egypt
State
• Belgium
• Nigeria
• United States
Multinational States A multinational state is a country that contains 
more than one nation. Most countries in the world today are multinational 
states that consist of one dominant nation and other smaller ones. The dominant 
nation controls most of the political power, but the smaller ones can have a 
significant impact. 
Numerous multinational states fit these criteria, including Canada. While 
the English-language culture dominates, about 25 percent of Canadians speak 
French primarily. Most live in the province of Quebec. In an effort to prevent 
Quebec from demanding independence, the national government passed 
legislation making Canada a bilingual state and gave the province increased 
local autonomy in government and education.
Similarly, the Canadian government granted more autonomy over local 
affairs and natural resources to the indigenous nations. As part of this effort, it 
created the territory of Nunavut in 1999. Nunavut is in the far north of Canada. 
Over 80 percent of the population consider themselves Inuit, a culturally 
similar group of indigenous people in the Arctic. South of this region, Canada 
has designated over 600 indigenous governments and tribes as First Nations. 
This label has granted these people legal status as designated groups, providing 
them with certain legal rights and privileges. These privileges usually include 
hunting and fishing rights, as well as more control over local affairs.
Autonomous Regions A defined area within a state that has a high degree 
of self-government and freedom from its parent state is sometimes known as 
an autonomous region. States often grant this authority to geographically, 
ethnically, or culturally distinct areas. 
For example, Åland is a group of islands in the Baltic Sea. It is part of Finland 
but lies near Sweden. Most residents are ethnically Swedish and speak that 
language. The people of Åland submitted a request to the League of Nations, a 
body similar to today’ s United Nations, to join Sweden after W orld W ar I ended 
in 1918. The League ruled that Åland should remain part of Finland, but as a 
nonmilitarized, largely self-governing entity, which it still is today.