Textbook: Political Boundaries and Forms of Governance | AP Human Geography - Grade 9 PDF Download

 Page 1


217 CHAPTER 9: POLITICAL BOUNDARIES AND FORMS OF GOVERNANCE
CHAPTER 9
Political Boundaries and 
Forms of Governance
Topics 4.4–4.7
Topic 4.4 Defining Political Boundaries
Learning Objective: Define types of political boundaries used by geographers. 
(IMP-4.A)
Topic 4.5 The Functions of Political Boundaries
Learning Objective: Explain the nature and function of international and internal 
boundaries. (IMP-4.B)
Topic 4.6 Internal Boundaries
Learning Objective: Explain the nature and function of international and internal 
boundaries. (IMP-4.B)
Topic 4.7 Forms of Governance
Learning Objectives: Define federal and unitary states. (IMP-4.C) 
Explain how federal and unitary states affect spatial organization. (IMP-4.D)
Who rules East Europe commands the Heartland; Who rules the 
Heartland commands the World-Island; Who rules the World-Island 
commands the world.
—Sir Halford John Mackinder, British geographer, 1919
Depicted is the Korean Demilitarized Zone (DMZ). Despite the name, it is the militarized boundary 
between the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea (DPRK) and the Republic of Korea (ROK). (See 
Topic 4.4 for more about militarized boundaries.)
Page 2


217 CHAPTER 9: POLITICAL BOUNDARIES AND FORMS OF GOVERNANCE
CHAPTER 9
Political Boundaries and 
Forms of Governance
Topics 4.4–4.7
Topic 4.4 Defining Political Boundaries
Learning Objective: Define types of political boundaries used by geographers. 
(IMP-4.A)
Topic 4.5 The Functions of Political Boundaries
Learning Objective: Explain the nature and function of international and internal 
boundaries. (IMP-4.B)
Topic 4.6 Internal Boundaries
Learning Objective: Explain the nature and function of international and internal 
boundaries. (IMP-4.B)
Topic 4.7 Forms of Governance
Learning Objectives: Define federal and unitary states. (IMP-4.C) 
Explain how federal and unitary states affect spatial organization. (IMP-4.D)
Who rules East Europe commands the Heartland; Who rules the 
Heartland commands the World-Island; Who rules the World-Island 
commands the world.
—Sir Halford John Mackinder, British geographer, 1919
Depicted is the Korean Demilitarized Zone (DMZ). Despite the name, it is the militarized boundary 
between the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea (DPRK) and the Republic of Korea (ROK). (See 
Topic 4.4 for more about militarized boundaries.)
218 HUMAN GEOGRAPHY: AP
®
 EDITION
4.4
Defining Political Boundaries
Essential Question: What are the types of political boundaries used by 
geographers?
The most common type of map used is a reference map, in which physical 
and cultural features are shown and usually identified. One expects a map, at 
any scale, to include boundaries that have been clearly delimited. Whether at 
the local, regional, or national scale, boundaries are an integral part of our 
lives. Some are invisible to the eye and others are clearly demarcated, yet all 
serve some political or functional purpose.
In essence, any contemporary political boundary can be categorized in one 
of two ways, physical or cultural. Physical geographic boundaries are natural 
barriers between areas such as oceans, deserts, and mountains. For example, 
the Missouri River divides Iowa and Nebraska, and the Himalayan Mountains 
separate India and China. 
By contrast, cultural boundaries divide people according to some cultural 
division, such as language, religion, or ethnicity. A cultural boundary may exist 
in the midst of a gradual change over space. For example, in China, cuisine 
was once divided into two regions: wheat-based in the north and rice-based in 
the south. However, no exact line has ever divided the two regions sharply. A 
boundary can be classified as possessing both physical and cultural attributes.
Classifications of Boundaries
While classifying political boundaries as physical or cultural enables us 
to identify what a border is, geographers have developed a more in-depth 
classification system that provides greater context on how borders develop over 
time. 
Genetic Classification of Boundaries
There are four genetic types (classified as to how they were generated) of 
political boundaries: antecedent, subsequent, superimposed, and relic.
Antecedent Boundary This type of boundary preceded the development 
of the cultural landscape. For boundaries, significant physical obstacles—such 
as oceans or mountains—possess a static aspect in that they feature a relatively 
unpopulated zone between populated areas. They also possess a kinetic aspect 
in that they hinder connections and interactions between people in adjacent 
regions. An example includes the straight-line boundaries for states across the 
western frontier of the emerging United States. Political boundaries like these 
Page 3


217 CHAPTER 9: POLITICAL BOUNDARIES AND FORMS OF GOVERNANCE
CHAPTER 9
Political Boundaries and 
Forms of Governance
Topics 4.4–4.7
Topic 4.4 Defining Political Boundaries
Learning Objective: Define types of political boundaries used by geographers. 
(IMP-4.A)
Topic 4.5 The Functions of Political Boundaries
Learning Objective: Explain the nature and function of international and internal 
boundaries. (IMP-4.B)
Topic 4.6 Internal Boundaries
Learning Objective: Explain the nature and function of international and internal 
boundaries. (IMP-4.B)
Topic 4.7 Forms of Governance
Learning Objectives: Define federal and unitary states. (IMP-4.C) 
Explain how federal and unitary states affect spatial organization. (IMP-4.D)
Who rules East Europe commands the Heartland; Who rules the 
Heartland commands the World-Island; Who rules the World-Island 
commands the world.
—Sir Halford John Mackinder, British geographer, 1919
Depicted is the Korean Demilitarized Zone (DMZ). Despite the name, it is the militarized boundary 
between the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea (DPRK) and the Republic of Korea (ROK). (See 
Topic 4.4 for more about militarized boundaries.)
218 HUMAN GEOGRAPHY: AP
®
 EDITION
4.4
Defining Political Boundaries
Essential Question: What are the types of political boundaries used by 
geographers?
The most common type of map used is a reference map, in which physical 
and cultural features are shown and usually identified. One expects a map, at 
any scale, to include boundaries that have been clearly delimited. Whether at 
the local, regional, or national scale, boundaries are an integral part of our 
lives. Some are invisible to the eye and others are clearly demarcated, yet all 
serve some political or functional purpose.
In essence, any contemporary political boundary can be categorized in one 
of two ways, physical or cultural. Physical geographic boundaries are natural 
barriers between areas such as oceans, deserts, and mountains. For example, 
the Missouri River divides Iowa and Nebraska, and the Himalayan Mountains 
separate India and China. 
By contrast, cultural boundaries divide people according to some cultural 
division, such as language, religion, or ethnicity. A cultural boundary may exist 
in the midst of a gradual change over space. For example, in China, cuisine 
was once divided into two regions: wheat-based in the north and rice-based in 
the south. However, no exact line has ever divided the two regions sharply. A 
boundary can be classified as possessing both physical and cultural attributes.
Classifications of Boundaries
While classifying political boundaries as physical or cultural enables us 
to identify what a border is, geographers have developed a more in-depth 
classification system that provides greater context on how borders develop over 
time. 
Genetic Classification of Boundaries
There are four genetic types (classified as to how they were generated) of 
political boundaries: antecedent, subsequent, superimposed, and relic.
Antecedent Boundary This type of boundary preceded the development 
of the cultural landscape. For boundaries, significant physical obstacles—such 
as oceans or mountains—possess a static aspect in that they feature a relatively 
unpopulated zone between populated areas. They also possess a kinetic aspect 
in that they hinder connections and interactions between people in adjacent 
regions. An example includes the straight-line boundaries for states across the 
western frontier of the emerging United States. Political boundaries like these 
219 4.4: DEFINING POLITICAL BOUNDARIES
were established before a large population was present and remained in place 
as people increasingly occupied these regions. 
Antecedent boundaries are typically based on physical features. Since 
humans are terrestrial beings and need to live on land for survival, the 
unpopulated oceans such as the Atlantic and Pacific make for logical antecedent 
boundaries. The Andes Mountains form the long-reaching eastern boundary of 
Chile, naturally separating it from Bolivia and Argentina. However, antecedent 
boundaries that do not present a significant physical obstacle, such as small 
hills or rivers, tend to make less effective political boundaries. 
While rivers possess a static benefit in that they maintain an unpopulated 
zone between populated areas, they tend to facilitate more connections and 
interactions. Transboundary freshwater sources, such as the Jordan River, have 
resulted in competing claims among Israel, Lebanon, Jordan, and Palestine. 
Just because an antecedent boundary exists, it does not necessarily mean it is 
effective. 
Subsequent Boundary This boundary is typically created while the cultural 
landscape is evolving and is subject to change over time. These boundaries are 
characteristically ethnographic in nature, meaning they are usually related to 
cultural phenomena. They may be drawn to accommodate ethnic, religious, 
linguistic, or economic differences among groups. Subsequent boundaries are 
often altered as a result of non-cultural developments such as governmental 
negotiations or war. Beginning in the mid-16
th
 century, the monarch of 
Scotland and England encouraged emigration to Ireland, which was then 
under English rule. Many Scots and English Protestants settled in the northern 
region of predominantly Roman Catholic Ireland. Over the years, resentment 
and violence broke out between the groups over internal borders and political 
influence in the region. In 1921, Northern Ireland officially became part of 
the United Kingdom, separating from the southern portion of the island—the 
Republic of Ireland. A commission was formed to draw the new border based 
on the religious and political cultural landscape.
Superimposed Boundary This type of boundary is drawn by outside 
powers and may have ignored existing cultural patterns. These boundaries 
often lack conformity to natural features and, therefore, were superimposed 
on the landscape. Between 1884 and 1885, the Berlin Conference paved 
the way for colonization of Africa or what Europeans regarded as “effective 
occupation” of the continent. At the time of the conference, only some coastal 
areas were colonized by the Europeans and around 80 percent of the continent 
was under traditional and local control. As a result of the conference, a series 
of superimposed boundaries were established, initially with little knowledge of 
the terrain or the cultural borders. 
One of the legacies of this “Scramble for Africa” was the creation of around 
50 irregularly shaped countries out of the more than 1,000 indigenous cultures 
that inhabited the continent. Of the 54 current African countries, 17 are 
landlocked states, or without territory connected to an ocean. The increased 
cost of importing and exporting goods through neighboring countries 
Page 4


217 CHAPTER 9: POLITICAL BOUNDARIES AND FORMS OF GOVERNANCE
CHAPTER 9
Political Boundaries and 
Forms of Governance
Topics 4.4–4.7
Topic 4.4 Defining Political Boundaries
Learning Objective: Define types of political boundaries used by geographers. 
(IMP-4.A)
Topic 4.5 The Functions of Political Boundaries
Learning Objective: Explain the nature and function of international and internal 
boundaries. (IMP-4.B)
Topic 4.6 Internal Boundaries
Learning Objective: Explain the nature and function of international and internal 
boundaries. (IMP-4.B)
Topic 4.7 Forms of Governance
Learning Objectives: Define federal and unitary states. (IMP-4.C) 
Explain how federal and unitary states affect spatial organization. (IMP-4.D)
Who rules East Europe commands the Heartland; Who rules the 
Heartland commands the World-Island; Who rules the World-Island 
commands the world.
—Sir Halford John Mackinder, British geographer, 1919
Depicted is the Korean Demilitarized Zone (DMZ). Despite the name, it is the militarized boundary 
between the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea (DPRK) and the Republic of Korea (ROK). (See 
Topic 4.4 for more about militarized boundaries.)
218 HUMAN GEOGRAPHY: AP
®
 EDITION
4.4
Defining Political Boundaries
Essential Question: What are the types of political boundaries used by 
geographers?
The most common type of map used is a reference map, in which physical 
and cultural features are shown and usually identified. One expects a map, at 
any scale, to include boundaries that have been clearly delimited. Whether at 
the local, regional, or national scale, boundaries are an integral part of our 
lives. Some are invisible to the eye and others are clearly demarcated, yet all 
serve some political or functional purpose.
In essence, any contemporary political boundary can be categorized in one 
of two ways, physical or cultural. Physical geographic boundaries are natural 
barriers between areas such as oceans, deserts, and mountains. For example, 
the Missouri River divides Iowa and Nebraska, and the Himalayan Mountains 
separate India and China. 
By contrast, cultural boundaries divide people according to some cultural 
division, such as language, religion, or ethnicity. A cultural boundary may exist 
in the midst of a gradual change over space. For example, in China, cuisine 
was once divided into two regions: wheat-based in the north and rice-based in 
the south. However, no exact line has ever divided the two regions sharply. A 
boundary can be classified as possessing both physical and cultural attributes.
Classifications of Boundaries
While classifying political boundaries as physical or cultural enables us 
to identify what a border is, geographers have developed a more in-depth 
classification system that provides greater context on how borders develop over 
time. 
Genetic Classification of Boundaries
There are four genetic types (classified as to how they were generated) of 
political boundaries: antecedent, subsequent, superimposed, and relic.
Antecedent Boundary This type of boundary preceded the development 
of the cultural landscape. For boundaries, significant physical obstacles—such 
as oceans or mountains—possess a static aspect in that they feature a relatively 
unpopulated zone between populated areas. They also possess a kinetic aspect 
in that they hinder connections and interactions between people in adjacent 
regions. An example includes the straight-line boundaries for states across the 
western frontier of the emerging United States. Political boundaries like these 
219 4.4: DEFINING POLITICAL BOUNDARIES
were established before a large population was present and remained in place 
as people increasingly occupied these regions. 
Antecedent boundaries are typically based on physical features. Since 
humans are terrestrial beings and need to live on land for survival, the 
unpopulated oceans such as the Atlantic and Pacific make for logical antecedent 
boundaries. The Andes Mountains form the long-reaching eastern boundary of 
Chile, naturally separating it from Bolivia and Argentina. However, antecedent 
boundaries that do not present a significant physical obstacle, such as small 
hills or rivers, tend to make less effective political boundaries. 
While rivers possess a static benefit in that they maintain an unpopulated 
zone between populated areas, they tend to facilitate more connections and 
interactions. Transboundary freshwater sources, such as the Jordan River, have 
resulted in competing claims among Israel, Lebanon, Jordan, and Palestine. 
Just because an antecedent boundary exists, it does not necessarily mean it is 
effective. 
Subsequent Boundary This boundary is typically created while the cultural 
landscape is evolving and is subject to change over time. These boundaries are 
characteristically ethnographic in nature, meaning they are usually related to 
cultural phenomena. They may be drawn to accommodate ethnic, religious, 
linguistic, or economic differences among groups. Subsequent boundaries are 
often altered as a result of non-cultural developments such as governmental 
negotiations or war. Beginning in the mid-16
th
 century, the monarch of 
Scotland and England encouraged emigration to Ireland, which was then 
under English rule. Many Scots and English Protestants settled in the northern 
region of predominantly Roman Catholic Ireland. Over the years, resentment 
and violence broke out between the groups over internal borders and political 
influence in the region. In 1921, Northern Ireland officially became part of 
the United Kingdom, separating from the southern portion of the island—the 
Republic of Ireland. A commission was formed to draw the new border based 
on the religious and political cultural landscape.
Superimposed Boundary This type of boundary is drawn by outside 
powers and may have ignored existing cultural patterns. These boundaries 
often lack conformity to natural features and, therefore, were superimposed 
on the landscape. Between 1884 and 1885, the Berlin Conference paved 
the way for colonization of Africa or what Europeans regarded as “effective 
occupation” of the continent. At the time of the conference, only some coastal 
areas were colonized by the Europeans and around 80 percent of the continent 
was under traditional and local control. As a result of the conference, a series 
of superimposed boundaries were established, initially with little knowledge of 
the terrain or the cultural borders. 
One of the legacies of this “Scramble for Africa” was the creation of around 
50 irregularly shaped countries out of the more than 1,000 indigenous cultures 
that inhabited the continent. Of the 54 current African countries, 17 are 
landlocked states, or without territory connected to an ocean. The increased 
cost of importing and exporting goods through neighboring countries 
220 HUMAN GEOGRAPHY: AP
®
 EDITION
presents these states with a perpetual geographic and political disadvantage. 
Governments of landlocked states are inherently dealing from a weakened 
position and struggle to effectively negotiate with neighboring countries. While 
landlocked states, such as Botswana and Rwanda, have recently prospered 
through effective business growth policies, many landlocked states area among 
the most-impoverished and least-developed countries in the world.
LANDLOCKED COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD
Source: Wikimedia Commons
Which regions of the world have the most landlocked states? Describe an economic and political challenge 
that landlocked states face.
Relic Boundary This is a boundary that has been abandoned for political 
purposes, but evidence of it still exists on the landscape. These boundaries are 
nonfunctional in the political sense but are sometimes preserved for historic 
purposes. Constructed in 1961, the Berlin Wall that divided East and West 
Berlin was famously torn down in 1989. Toward the end of the Cold War, East 
and West Germany reunited, but portions of the Berlin Wall are still upright, 
maintained as a tourist attraction and symbol of a past age. The Great Wall of 
China is also a relic boundary, serving no political separation between states, 
but still very visible on the landscape.
Geometric and Consequent Boundaries
In addition to classifying boundaries by how they were generated, geographers 
classify boundaries by what they follow. Do they conform to existing cultural 
boundaries or do they conform to physical features on the landscape?
In contrast to a physical boundary, a geometric boundary is a straight 
line or arc drawn by people that does not closely follow any physical feature. 
Historically, many boundaries have fallen upon lines of latitude or longitude, 
and since the surface of the earth is rounded, extended boundaries may more 
accurately form arcs. The majority of the boundary between the United States 
and Canada follows along the 49
th
 parallel (latitude). After World War II, 
Page 5


217 CHAPTER 9: POLITICAL BOUNDARIES AND FORMS OF GOVERNANCE
CHAPTER 9
Political Boundaries and 
Forms of Governance
Topics 4.4–4.7
Topic 4.4 Defining Political Boundaries
Learning Objective: Define types of political boundaries used by geographers. 
(IMP-4.A)
Topic 4.5 The Functions of Political Boundaries
Learning Objective: Explain the nature and function of international and internal 
boundaries. (IMP-4.B)
Topic 4.6 Internal Boundaries
Learning Objective: Explain the nature and function of international and internal 
boundaries. (IMP-4.B)
Topic 4.7 Forms of Governance
Learning Objectives: Define federal and unitary states. (IMP-4.C) 
Explain how federal and unitary states affect spatial organization. (IMP-4.D)
Who rules East Europe commands the Heartland; Who rules the 
Heartland commands the World-Island; Who rules the World-Island 
commands the world.
—Sir Halford John Mackinder, British geographer, 1919
Depicted is the Korean Demilitarized Zone (DMZ). Despite the name, it is the militarized boundary 
between the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea (DPRK) and the Republic of Korea (ROK). (See 
Topic 4.4 for more about militarized boundaries.)
218 HUMAN GEOGRAPHY: AP
®
 EDITION
4.4
Defining Political Boundaries
Essential Question: What are the types of political boundaries used by 
geographers?
The most common type of map used is a reference map, in which physical 
and cultural features are shown and usually identified. One expects a map, at 
any scale, to include boundaries that have been clearly delimited. Whether at 
the local, regional, or national scale, boundaries are an integral part of our 
lives. Some are invisible to the eye and others are clearly demarcated, yet all 
serve some political or functional purpose.
In essence, any contemporary political boundary can be categorized in one 
of two ways, physical or cultural. Physical geographic boundaries are natural 
barriers between areas such as oceans, deserts, and mountains. For example, 
the Missouri River divides Iowa and Nebraska, and the Himalayan Mountains 
separate India and China. 
By contrast, cultural boundaries divide people according to some cultural 
division, such as language, religion, or ethnicity. A cultural boundary may exist 
in the midst of a gradual change over space. For example, in China, cuisine 
was once divided into two regions: wheat-based in the north and rice-based in 
the south. However, no exact line has ever divided the two regions sharply. A 
boundary can be classified as possessing both physical and cultural attributes.
Classifications of Boundaries
While classifying political boundaries as physical or cultural enables us 
to identify what a border is, geographers have developed a more in-depth 
classification system that provides greater context on how borders develop over 
time. 
Genetic Classification of Boundaries
There are four genetic types (classified as to how they were generated) of 
political boundaries: antecedent, subsequent, superimposed, and relic.
Antecedent Boundary This type of boundary preceded the development 
of the cultural landscape. For boundaries, significant physical obstacles—such 
as oceans or mountains—possess a static aspect in that they feature a relatively 
unpopulated zone between populated areas. They also possess a kinetic aspect 
in that they hinder connections and interactions between people in adjacent 
regions. An example includes the straight-line boundaries for states across the 
western frontier of the emerging United States. Political boundaries like these 
219 4.4: DEFINING POLITICAL BOUNDARIES
were established before a large population was present and remained in place 
as people increasingly occupied these regions. 
Antecedent boundaries are typically based on physical features. Since 
humans are terrestrial beings and need to live on land for survival, the 
unpopulated oceans such as the Atlantic and Pacific make for logical antecedent 
boundaries. The Andes Mountains form the long-reaching eastern boundary of 
Chile, naturally separating it from Bolivia and Argentina. However, antecedent 
boundaries that do not present a significant physical obstacle, such as small 
hills or rivers, tend to make less effective political boundaries. 
While rivers possess a static benefit in that they maintain an unpopulated 
zone between populated areas, they tend to facilitate more connections and 
interactions. Transboundary freshwater sources, such as the Jordan River, have 
resulted in competing claims among Israel, Lebanon, Jordan, and Palestine. 
Just because an antecedent boundary exists, it does not necessarily mean it is 
effective. 
Subsequent Boundary This boundary is typically created while the cultural 
landscape is evolving and is subject to change over time. These boundaries are 
characteristically ethnographic in nature, meaning they are usually related to 
cultural phenomena. They may be drawn to accommodate ethnic, religious, 
linguistic, or economic differences among groups. Subsequent boundaries are 
often altered as a result of non-cultural developments such as governmental 
negotiations or war. Beginning in the mid-16
th
 century, the monarch of 
Scotland and England encouraged emigration to Ireland, which was then 
under English rule. Many Scots and English Protestants settled in the northern 
region of predominantly Roman Catholic Ireland. Over the years, resentment 
and violence broke out between the groups over internal borders and political 
influence in the region. In 1921, Northern Ireland officially became part of 
the United Kingdom, separating from the southern portion of the island—the 
Republic of Ireland. A commission was formed to draw the new border based 
on the religious and political cultural landscape.
Superimposed Boundary This type of boundary is drawn by outside 
powers and may have ignored existing cultural patterns. These boundaries 
often lack conformity to natural features and, therefore, were superimposed 
on the landscape. Between 1884 and 1885, the Berlin Conference paved 
the way for colonization of Africa or what Europeans regarded as “effective 
occupation” of the continent. At the time of the conference, only some coastal 
areas were colonized by the Europeans and around 80 percent of the continent 
was under traditional and local control. As a result of the conference, a series 
of superimposed boundaries were established, initially with little knowledge of 
the terrain or the cultural borders. 
One of the legacies of this “Scramble for Africa” was the creation of around 
50 irregularly shaped countries out of the more than 1,000 indigenous cultures 
that inhabited the continent. Of the 54 current African countries, 17 are 
landlocked states, or without territory connected to an ocean. The increased 
cost of importing and exporting goods through neighboring countries 
220 HUMAN GEOGRAPHY: AP
®
 EDITION
presents these states with a perpetual geographic and political disadvantage. 
Governments of landlocked states are inherently dealing from a weakened 
position and struggle to effectively negotiate with neighboring countries. While 
landlocked states, such as Botswana and Rwanda, have recently prospered 
through effective business growth policies, many landlocked states area among 
the most-impoverished and least-developed countries in the world.
LANDLOCKED COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD
Source: Wikimedia Commons
Which regions of the world have the most landlocked states? Describe an economic and political challenge 
that landlocked states face.
Relic Boundary This is a boundary that has been abandoned for political 
purposes, but evidence of it still exists on the landscape. These boundaries are 
nonfunctional in the political sense but are sometimes preserved for historic 
purposes. Constructed in 1961, the Berlin Wall that divided East and West 
Berlin was famously torn down in 1989. Toward the end of the Cold War, East 
and West Germany reunited, but portions of the Berlin Wall are still upright, 
maintained as a tourist attraction and symbol of a past age. The Great Wall of 
China is also a relic boundary, serving no political separation between states, 
but still very visible on the landscape.
Geometric and Consequent Boundaries
In addition to classifying boundaries by how they were generated, geographers 
classify boundaries by what they follow. Do they conform to existing cultural 
boundaries or do they conform to physical features on the landscape?
In contrast to a physical boundary, a geometric boundary is a straight 
line or arc drawn by people that does not closely follow any physical feature. 
Historically, many boundaries have fallen upon lines of latitude or longitude, 
and since the surface of the earth is rounded, extended boundaries may more 
accurately form arcs. The majority of the boundary between the United States 
and Canada follows along the 49
th
 parallel (latitude). After World War II, 
221 4.4: DEFINING POLITICAL BOUNDARIES
North and South Korea were divided along the 38
th
 parallel. Many geometric 
boundaries are created as internal divisions within a state or territory, such as 
the political boundaries of Colorado and Wyoming.
A type of subsequent border that takes into account already-existing 
cultural or physical landscapes is a consequent boundary. A border that is 
drawn taking  into account language, ethnicity, religion, or other cultural traits 
it is a cultural consequent boundary. Also, these boundaries are created with 
the cultural landscape as a primary consideration. Political boundaries of this 
nature would be consequent upon an already-existing cultural phenomenon, 
such as the partition of the British colony of India in 1947, creating a Hindu-
majority India and a Muslim-majority Pakistan. 
Unlike geometric borders, a division that uses already-existing natural 
features that divide a territory such as rivers, deserts, or mountains is a physical 
consequent boundary. An example would be the Pyrenees Mountains that 
run across the northern edge of the Iberian Peninsula, separating Spain from 
France, and completely surrounding the country of Andorra. 
CLASSIFICATIONS OF BOUNDARIES
Type Definition Example
Antecedent A boundary established 
before a large population was 
present
The boundary of the Pyranees 
Mountains established between 
Spain and France
Subsequent
(Ethnographic)
A boundary drawn to 
accommodate religious, 
ethnic, linguistic, or economic 
differences
The boundary between 
Northern Ireland (part of the 
United Kingdom) and the 
Republic of Ireland
Superimposed A boundary drawn by outside  
powers
The boundary between Mali and 
Mauritania (common throughout 
Africa and Southwest Asia)
Relic A boundary that no longer 
exists, but is still evident on 
the landscape
The boundary between East and 
West Germany (states that are now 
combined)
Geometric A straight line or arc drawn by 
people that does not closely 
follow any physical feature
The boundary between the United 
States and Canada along the 49th 
parallel
Consequent A type of subsequent 
boundary that takes into 
account existing cultural or 
physical landscapes
The boundary between India and 
Pakistan created for religious 
reasons
Protection of Boundaries
Accurately defining and describing political boundaries are important tasks 
for geographers in understanding the complex structure of states and the 
interaction between them. There are many ways to define boundaries and, 
furthermore, a single border can possess the attributes of several types. For 
instance, most superimposed boundaries are geometric. Additionally, there are