Textbook: Challenges and Consequences of Agriculture | AP Human Geography - Grade 9 PDF Download

 Page 1


333 CHAPTER 14: CHALLENGES AND CONSEQUENCES OF AGRICULTURAL PRACTICES 
CHAPTER 14
Challenges and 
Consequences of 
Agricultural Practices 
Topics 5.10–5.12
Topic 5.10 Consequences of Agricultural Practices
Learning Objective: Explain how agricultural practices have environmental and 
societal consequences. (IMP-5.A)
Topic 5.11 Challenges of Contemporary Agriculture
Learning Objective: Explain challenges and debates related to the changing 
nature of contemporary agriculture and food-production practices. (IMP-5.B)
Topic 5.12 Women in Agriculture
Learning Objective: Explain geographic variations in female roles in food  
production and consumption. (IMP-5.C)
For hunger is a direct affront not only to the physical integrity but 
also to the very dignity of the human person. Hunger is an insult to 
the fundamental values of the international community. 
—UN Secretary-General, Boutros Boutros-Ghali, 
World Food Summit, 1996
Source: Alamy
In Malawi, Africa, women receive training on farm equipment, such as this hand tractor, which 
allows them to be more productive farmers. (See Topic 5.12 for more on the changing role of 
women in food production.)
Page 2


333 CHAPTER 14: CHALLENGES AND CONSEQUENCES OF AGRICULTURAL PRACTICES 
CHAPTER 14
Challenges and 
Consequences of 
Agricultural Practices 
Topics 5.10–5.12
Topic 5.10 Consequences of Agricultural Practices
Learning Objective: Explain how agricultural practices have environmental and 
societal consequences. (IMP-5.A)
Topic 5.11 Challenges of Contemporary Agriculture
Learning Objective: Explain challenges and debates related to the changing 
nature of contemporary agriculture and food-production practices. (IMP-5.B)
Topic 5.12 Women in Agriculture
Learning Objective: Explain geographic variations in female roles in food  
production and consumption. (IMP-5.C)
For hunger is a direct affront not only to the physical integrity but 
also to the very dignity of the human person. Hunger is an insult to 
the fundamental values of the international community. 
—UN Secretary-General, Boutros Boutros-Ghali, 
World Food Summit, 1996
Source: Alamy
In Malawi, Africa, women receive training on farm equipment, such as this hand tractor, which 
allows them to be more productive farmers. (See Topic 5.12 for more on the changing role of 
women in food production.)
334 HUMAN GEOGRAPHY: AP
®
 EDITION
5.10
Consequences of Agricultural 
Practices
Essential Question: What are the environmental and societal 
consequences of agricultural practices? 
In the modern era, commercial agriculture has almost completely replaced 
subsistence farming. Many farming operations evolved from small enterprises 
owned by a single family into large-scale, capital-intensive businesses. This 
shift has put more stress on the environment than ever before. 
In addition to dealing with the environmental consequences, agricultural 
challenges now include, developing new farmland, growing more food, and 
managing agriculture at a different scale. It is not simply changing subsistence 
farmers into commercial farmers, but how all farmers alter their practices to 
accommodate the changing needs and desires of the population. 
Women have always played a crucial role in food production, and in recent 
years, their contributions have become even more important. W omen are often 
the leaders in finding methods to improve the productivity of farms, in spite of 
the obstacles of gender inequality. 
Environmental Effects of Modern Food Production
Although there are tremendous differences in the efficiency of farming 
practices throughout the world, most practices have evolved to effectively use 
the soil quality and climate in various locations. Technological innovations 
have allowed for massive increases in food production, but at a cost. It is usually 
modern and intensive forms of farming that have the greatest environmental 
impact. Regardless of the type of farming practiced, humans have an impact on 
the environment when they alter natural ecosystems. 
Land Cover Change
Changes in land use occur as the world’s population grows, due to increased 
pressure to grow more food and develop more land for homes. Land cover 
change is the study of how land is used and the impact of changing land 
use. Geographers are particularly interested in loss of natural land areas to 
agriculture and the loss of agricultural land to the expansion of urban areas. 
(See Topics 5.11 and 6.11.) Geographers use data and satellite images to map 
and analyze changes in land use. 
Page 3


333 CHAPTER 14: CHALLENGES AND CONSEQUENCES OF AGRICULTURAL PRACTICES 
CHAPTER 14
Challenges and 
Consequences of 
Agricultural Practices 
Topics 5.10–5.12
Topic 5.10 Consequences of Agricultural Practices
Learning Objective: Explain how agricultural practices have environmental and 
societal consequences. (IMP-5.A)
Topic 5.11 Challenges of Contemporary Agriculture
Learning Objective: Explain challenges and debates related to the changing 
nature of contemporary agriculture and food-production practices. (IMP-5.B)
Topic 5.12 Women in Agriculture
Learning Objective: Explain geographic variations in female roles in food  
production and consumption. (IMP-5.C)
For hunger is a direct affront not only to the physical integrity but 
also to the very dignity of the human person. Hunger is an insult to 
the fundamental values of the international community. 
—UN Secretary-General, Boutros Boutros-Ghali, 
World Food Summit, 1996
Source: Alamy
In Malawi, Africa, women receive training on farm equipment, such as this hand tractor, which 
allows them to be more productive farmers. (See Topic 5.12 for more on the changing role of 
women in food production.)
334 HUMAN GEOGRAPHY: AP
®
 EDITION
5.10
Consequences of Agricultural 
Practices
Essential Question: What are the environmental and societal 
consequences of agricultural practices? 
In the modern era, commercial agriculture has almost completely replaced 
subsistence farming. Many farming operations evolved from small enterprises 
owned by a single family into large-scale, capital-intensive businesses. This 
shift has put more stress on the environment than ever before. 
In addition to dealing with the environmental consequences, agricultural 
challenges now include, developing new farmland, growing more food, and 
managing agriculture at a different scale. It is not simply changing subsistence 
farmers into commercial farmers, but how all farmers alter their practices to 
accommodate the changing needs and desires of the population. 
Women have always played a crucial role in food production, and in recent 
years, their contributions have become even more important. W omen are often 
the leaders in finding methods to improve the productivity of farms, in spite of 
the obstacles of gender inequality. 
Environmental Effects of Modern Food Production
Although there are tremendous differences in the efficiency of farming 
practices throughout the world, most practices have evolved to effectively use 
the soil quality and climate in various locations. Technological innovations 
have allowed for massive increases in food production, but at a cost. It is usually 
modern and intensive forms of farming that have the greatest environmental 
impact. Regardless of the type of farming practiced, humans have an impact on 
the environment when they alter natural ecosystems. 
Land Cover Change
Changes in land use occur as the world’s population grows, due to increased 
pressure to grow more food and develop more land for homes. Land cover 
change is the study of how land is used and the impact of changing land 
use. Geographers are particularly interested in loss of natural land areas to 
agriculture and the loss of agricultural land to the expansion of urban areas. 
(See Topics 5.11 and 6.11.) Geographers use data and satellite images to map 
and analyze changes in land use. 
335 5.10: CONSEQUENCES OF AGRICULTURAL PRACTICES
    
Images taken from space show parts of western Brazil in 2000 (left) and 2012 (right). Deforestation and 
agriculture have impacted the rainforests of this region. The dark areas are forest and the light areas are 
farmland. Describe the changes of land use from 2000 to 2012. 
Pollution
Pollution is often associated with industrial processes, but farming also 
contributes to air, water, and soil pollution. The most intensive forms of 
agriculture are usually responsible for the worst agricultural pollution. Farmers’ 
use of chemical fertilizers, insecticides, pesticides, and herbicides has increased 
tremendously over the past several decades, and resulted in polluted air, water, 
and land. Their use has also resulted in health issues for those exposed to the 
chemicals. To ensure minimal damage to the environment and people, many 
governments have regulated the amount and types of chemicals that can be used, 
in addition to how and when they can be applied.
Desertification
Alteration of the natural vegetation in arid areas causes fertile land to become 
infertile, or desertification . For example, desertification is caused by the 
removal of forests or overgrazing livestock which can allow for increased wind 
erosion and result in the loss of the topsoil. Even common farming practices, 
such as plowing or irrigation, done irresponsibly can expose the soil to excessive 
erosion. 
Soil Salinization
Improper use of irrigation or water high in salt content can cause salinization 
of the soil. Salinization occurs when salts from water used by plants remain in 
the soil. Salinization decreases a plant’s ability to uptake water and nutrients, 
which results in lower yields and may render soil useless. Evaporation also 
leaves salts behind in the soil, so if there is excess water, either in the soil or on 
the surface, salinization rates increase. 
Protecting Natural Ecosystems and Conservation Efforts
Economic benefits of agriculture conflict with conservation and environmental 
efforts in many regions. In response, an increasing number of individuals, non-
government organizations, and government agencies are becoming involved 
Page 4


333 CHAPTER 14: CHALLENGES AND CONSEQUENCES OF AGRICULTURAL PRACTICES 
CHAPTER 14
Challenges and 
Consequences of 
Agricultural Practices 
Topics 5.10–5.12
Topic 5.10 Consequences of Agricultural Practices
Learning Objective: Explain how agricultural practices have environmental and 
societal consequences. (IMP-5.A)
Topic 5.11 Challenges of Contemporary Agriculture
Learning Objective: Explain challenges and debates related to the changing 
nature of contemporary agriculture and food-production practices. (IMP-5.B)
Topic 5.12 Women in Agriculture
Learning Objective: Explain geographic variations in female roles in food  
production and consumption. (IMP-5.C)
For hunger is a direct affront not only to the physical integrity but 
also to the very dignity of the human person. Hunger is an insult to 
the fundamental values of the international community. 
—UN Secretary-General, Boutros Boutros-Ghali, 
World Food Summit, 1996
Source: Alamy
In Malawi, Africa, women receive training on farm equipment, such as this hand tractor, which 
allows them to be more productive farmers. (See Topic 5.12 for more on the changing role of 
women in food production.)
334 HUMAN GEOGRAPHY: AP
®
 EDITION
5.10
Consequences of Agricultural 
Practices
Essential Question: What are the environmental and societal 
consequences of agricultural practices? 
In the modern era, commercial agriculture has almost completely replaced 
subsistence farming. Many farming operations evolved from small enterprises 
owned by a single family into large-scale, capital-intensive businesses. This 
shift has put more stress on the environment than ever before. 
In addition to dealing with the environmental consequences, agricultural 
challenges now include, developing new farmland, growing more food, and 
managing agriculture at a different scale. It is not simply changing subsistence 
farmers into commercial farmers, but how all farmers alter their practices to 
accommodate the changing needs and desires of the population. 
Women have always played a crucial role in food production, and in recent 
years, their contributions have become even more important. W omen are often 
the leaders in finding methods to improve the productivity of farms, in spite of 
the obstacles of gender inequality. 
Environmental Effects of Modern Food Production
Although there are tremendous differences in the efficiency of farming 
practices throughout the world, most practices have evolved to effectively use 
the soil quality and climate in various locations. Technological innovations 
have allowed for massive increases in food production, but at a cost. It is usually 
modern and intensive forms of farming that have the greatest environmental 
impact. Regardless of the type of farming practiced, humans have an impact on 
the environment when they alter natural ecosystems. 
Land Cover Change
Changes in land use occur as the world’s population grows, due to increased 
pressure to grow more food and develop more land for homes. Land cover 
change is the study of how land is used and the impact of changing land 
use. Geographers are particularly interested in loss of natural land areas to 
agriculture and the loss of agricultural land to the expansion of urban areas. 
(See Topics 5.11 and 6.11.) Geographers use data and satellite images to map 
and analyze changes in land use. 
335 5.10: CONSEQUENCES OF AGRICULTURAL PRACTICES
    
Images taken from space show parts of western Brazil in 2000 (left) and 2012 (right). Deforestation and 
agriculture have impacted the rainforests of this region. The dark areas are forest and the light areas are 
farmland. Describe the changes of land use from 2000 to 2012. 
Pollution
Pollution is often associated with industrial processes, but farming also 
contributes to air, water, and soil pollution. The most intensive forms of 
agriculture are usually responsible for the worst agricultural pollution. Farmers’ 
use of chemical fertilizers, insecticides, pesticides, and herbicides has increased 
tremendously over the past several decades, and resulted in polluted air, water, 
and land. Their use has also resulted in health issues for those exposed to the 
chemicals. To ensure minimal damage to the environment and people, many 
governments have regulated the amount and types of chemicals that can be used, 
in addition to how and when they can be applied.
Desertification
Alteration of the natural vegetation in arid areas causes fertile land to become 
infertile, or desertification . For example, desertification is caused by the 
removal of forests or overgrazing livestock which can allow for increased wind 
erosion and result in the loss of the topsoil. Even common farming practices, 
such as plowing or irrigation, done irresponsibly can expose the soil to excessive 
erosion. 
Soil Salinization
Improper use of irrigation or water high in salt content can cause salinization 
of the soil. Salinization occurs when salts from water used by plants remain in 
the soil. Salinization decreases a plant’s ability to uptake water and nutrients, 
which results in lower yields and may render soil useless. Evaporation also 
leaves salts behind in the soil, so if there is excess water, either in the soil or on 
the surface, salinization rates increase. 
Protecting Natural Ecosystems and Conservation Efforts
Economic benefits of agriculture conflict with conservation and environmental 
efforts in many regions. In response, an increasing number of individuals, non-
government organizations, and government agencies are becoming involved 
336 HUMAN GEOGRAPHY: AP
®
 EDITION
with conservation efforts. Their goal is to counter the damaging effects of 
destroying the natural landscape, and the various flora and fauna that inhabit 
it, through the expansion and development of farmland.
National and local governments have instituted regulations on the use of 
agricultural chemicals, development and possible destruction of fragile natural 
environments, and preservation of valuable farmland. Governments have 
also educated farmers and the general public on the environmental effects of 
farming. 
Individual farmers effect change by pursuing more environmentally 
friendly practices, such as reducing the use of agricultural chemicals, using 
more natural pest control solutions, monitoring irrigation usage, and growing 
crops organically. Individual consumers show support for farmers who use 
more sustainable practices by purchasing their products, even at higher prices.
Another practice to defend the environment is to create protected zones, 
forests, or preserves where development is not allowed. Some countries set 
aside land that has biodiversity or endangered species in order to preserve and 
protect the land, plants, and animals. Debates about how much protection is 
warranted and what types of activities should be allowed in protected areas 
occur on a local, national, and global scale. 
An example of environmental protection at a global scale occurred in the 
1980s. People from many nations joined the “Save the Rainforest” movement 
that supported farming and logging practices that did not damage the Brazilian 
rainforest. 
Humans Altering the Landscape for Agriculture 
Ever since the first humans began to farm, they altered the landscape to their 
advantage. Things that people now consider natural—building earthworks, 
redirecting streams, or removing natural obstacles—were at one time 
innovations. Far from natural, these undertakings were fresh, creative solutions 
to challenges faced by the earliest agriculturalists.
Terracing
One of the earliest human alterations of the landscape was terrace farming, 
in which farmers build a series of steps into the side of a hill. This creates flat 
surfaces, which have several benefits over steeply graded hillsides:
• The amount of arable land increases in areas with steep hillsides. 
• The land collects rainfall that sustains the crops, rather than allowing it 
to run down a sloped hillside. 
• The reduction in water running down the hillside limits soil erosion.
However, if terraces are not carefully maintained, a heavy rainfall can cause 
disastrous and deadly mudslides.
Terrace farming has long been used throughout the world. In East Asia, 
terrace farming is often used to grow rice. In South America, potatoes and 
Page 5


333 CHAPTER 14: CHALLENGES AND CONSEQUENCES OF AGRICULTURAL PRACTICES 
CHAPTER 14
Challenges and 
Consequences of 
Agricultural Practices 
Topics 5.10–5.12
Topic 5.10 Consequences of Agricultural Practices
Learning Objective: Explain how agricultural practices have environmental and 
societal consequences. (IMP-5.A)
Topic 5.11 Challenges of Contemporary Agriculture
Learning Objective: Explain challenges and debates related to the changing 
nature of contemporary agriculture and food-production practices. (IMP-5.B)
Topic 5.12 Women in Agriculture
Learning Objective: Explain geographic variations in female roles in food  
production and consumption. (IMP-5.C)
For hunger is a direct affront not only to the physical integrity but 
also to the very dignity of the human person. Hunger is an insult to 
the fundamental values of the international community. 
—UN Secretary-General, Boutros Boutros-Ghali, 
World Food Summit, 1996
Source: Alamy
In Malawi, Africa, women receive training on farm equipment, such as this hand tractor, which 
allows them to be more productive farmers. (See Topic 5.12 for more on the changing role of 
women in food production.)
334 HUMAN GEOGRAPHY: AP
®
 EDITION
5.10
Consequences of Agricultural 
Practices
Essential Question: What are the environmental and societal 
consequences of agricultural practices? 
In the modern era, commercial agriculture has almost completely replaced 
subsistence farming. Many farming operations evolved from small enterprises 
owned by a single family into large-scale, capital-intensive businesses. This 
shift has put more stress on the environment than ever before. 
In addition to dealing with the environmental consequences, agricultural 
challenges now include, developing new farmland, growing more food, and 
managing agriculture at a different scale. It is not simply changing subsistence 
farmers into commercial farmers, but how all farmers alter their practices to 
accommodate the changing needs and desires of the population. 
Women have always played a crucial role in food production, and in recent 
years, their contributions have become even more important. W omen are often 
the leaders in finding methods to improve the productivity of farms, in spite of 
the obstacles of gender inequality. 
Environmental Effects of Modern Food Production
Although there are tremendous differences in the efficiency of farming 
practices throughout the world, most practices have evolved to effectively use 
the soil quality and climate in various locations. Technological innovations 
have allowed for massive increases in food production, but at a cost. It is usually 
modern and intensive forms of farming that have the greatest environmental 
impact. Regardless of the type of farming practiced, humans have an impact on 
the environment when they alter natural ecosystems. 
Land Cover Change
Changes in land use occur as the world’s population grows, due to increased 
pressure to grow more food and develop more land for homes. Land cover 
change is the study of how land is used and the impact of changing land 
use. Geographers are particularly interested in loss of natural land areas to 
agriculture and the loss of agricultural land to the expansion of urban areas. 
(See Topics 5.11 and 6.11.) Geographers use data and satellite images to map 
and analyze changes in land use. 
335 5.10: CONSEQUENCES OF AGRICULTURAL PRACTICES
    
Images taken from space show parts of western Brazil in 2000 (left) and 2012 (right). Deforestation and 
agriculture have impacted the rainforests of this region. The dark areas are forest and the light areas are 
farmland. Describe the changes of land use from 2000 to 2012. 
Pollution
Pollution is often associated with industrial processes, but farming also 
contributes to air, water, and soil pollution. The most intensive forms of 
agriculture are usually responsible for the worst agricultural pollution. Farmers’ 
use of chemical fertilizers, insecticides, pesticides, and herbicides has increased 
tremendously over the past several decades, and resulted in polluted air, water, 
and land. Their use has also resulted in health issues for those exposed to the 
chemicals. To ensure minimal damage to the environment and people, many 
governments have regulated the amount and types of chemicals that can be used, 
in addition to how and when they can be applied.
Desertification
Alteration of the natural vegetation in arid areas causes fertile land to become 
infertile, or desertification . For example, desertification is caused by the 
removal of forests or overgrazing livestock which can allow for increased wind 
erosion and result in the loss of the topsoil. Even common farming practices, 
such as plowing or irrigation, done irresponsibly can expose the soil to excessive 
erosion. 
Soil Salinization
Improper use of irrigation or water high in salt content can cause salinization 
of the soil. Salinization occurs when salts from water used by plants remain in 
the soil. Salinization decreases a plant’s ability to uptake water and nutrients, 
which results in lower yields and may render soil useless. Evaporation also 
leaves salts behind in the soil, so if there is excess water, either in the soil or on 
the surface, salinization rates increase. 
Protecting Natural Ecosystems and Conservation Efforts
Economic benefits of agriculture conflict with conservation and environmental 
efforts in many regions. In response, an increasing number of individuals, non-
government organizations, and government agencies are becoming involved 
336 HUMAN GEOGRAPHY: AP
®
 EDITION
with conservation efforts. Their goal is to counter the damaging effects of 
destroying the natural landscape, and the various flora and fauna that inhabit 
it, through the expansion and development of farmland.
National and local governments have instituted regulations on the use of 
agricultural chemicals, development and possible destruction of fragile natural 
environments, and preservation of valuable farmland. Governments have 
also educated farmers and the general public on the environmental effects of 
farming. 
Individual farmers effect change by pursuing more environmentally 
friendly practices, such as reducing the use of agricultural chemicals, using 
more natural pest control solutions, monitoring irrigation usage, and growing 
crops organically. Individual consumers show support for farmers who use 
more sustainable practices by purchasing their products, even at higher prices.
Another practice to defend the environment is to create protected zones, 
forests, or preserves where development is not allowed. Some countries set 
aside land that has biodiversity or endangered species in order to preserve and 
protect the land, plants, and animals. Debates about how much protection is 
warranted and what types of activities should be allowed in protected areas 
occur on a local, national, and global scale. 
An example of environmental protection at a global scale occurred in the 
1980s. People from many nations joined the “Save the Rainforest” movement 
that supported farming and logging practices that did not damage the Brazilian 
rainforest. 
Humans Altering the Landscape for Agriculture 
Ever since the first humans began to farm, they altered the landscape to their 
advantage. Things that people now consider natural—building earthworks, 
redirecting streams, or removing natural obstacles—were at one time 
innovations. Far from natural, these undertakings were fresh, creative solutions 
to challenges faced by the earliest agriculturalists.
Terracing
One of the earliest human alterations of the landscape was terrace farming, 
in which farmers build a series of steps into the side of a hill. This creates flat 
surfaces, which have several benefits over steeply graded hillsides:
• The amount of arable land increases in areas with steep hillsides. 
• The land collects rainfall that sustains the crops, rather than allowing it 
to run down a sloped hillside. 
• The reduction in water running down the hillside limits soil erosion.
However, if terraces are not carefully maintained, a heavy rainfall can cause 
disastrous and deadly mudslides.
Terrace farming has long been used throughout the world. In East Asia, 
terrace farming is often used to grow rice. In South America, potatoes and 
337 5.10: CONSEQUENCES OF AGRICULTURAL PRACTICES
maize (corn) are the main crops. In northern Africa, people often grow fruit 
and olive trees on terraced land. 
Managing Water
The process of applying controlled amounts of water to crops using dams, 
canals, pipes, sprinkler systems, or other manufactured devices rather than 
relying on just rainfall, is called irrigation. Humans have used irrigation to 
increase food production and increase their standard of living for thousands of 
years. In modern times, the successful use of large-scale irrigation contributed 
greatly to feeding the rapidly growing population of the world. Irrigation 
systems can turn deserts and semi-arid regions into productive farmland. An 
example is California, particularly the dry central and southern regions of the 
state.
Types of Irrigation Systems Dams turn streams or rivers into reservoirs 
that are used to maintain large quantities of water throughout the year. While 
beneficial to preserve and distribute water, dams destroy river ecosystems and 
people are often displaced from their land when the reservoirs are created. 
Aquifers are underground reserves of fresh groundwater which can be 
used to water crops. Wells must be built to access the water and then it is piped 
to the fields. Overuse of aquifers is a concern because the supply of water is 
often limited. 
A system developed in the mid-20
th
 century is center-pivot irrigation, in 
which watering equipment rotates around a pivot and delivers specific amounts 
of water, fertilizer, or pesticides to the field. These systems create large circular 
patterns in fields, which are visible from the sky. (See image on page 270.) 
This capital-intensive system is common with large-scale commercial farming 
because of its efficiency. 
Problems From Irrigation When misused, irrigation can cause severe 
problems. It can disrupt the natural drainage of water and reduce the normal 
regeneration of soils caused by natural flooding. Irrigation can reduce the 
amount of surface water in rivers and lakes. Overwatering leads to water 
contaminated with chemicals seeping into rivers and underground water 
systems. 
In the 1960s, the Soviet Union tried to divert water from rivers that flowed 
into the Aral Sea to increase cotton production in the region. The Aral Sea, once 
the fourth-largest lake in the world, was reduced to 10 percent of its former size 
by 1997. The project was poorly done and much of the water went to waste. 
The water that remained was extremely saline, which destroyed a flourishing 
fishing industry and caused economic hardship for the population that lived 
near the lake. Some of the former lakebed is now classified as a desert and 
cannot be farmed. 
In recent years, the government of Kazakhstan has been successful in 
revitalizing one small part of the lake. The destruction of the lake has provided 
a lesson regarding the consequences of manipulating the natural environment.