NCERT Solutions for Class 12 Psychology - Psychological Disorders

Q1: Identify the symptoms associated with depression and mania.
Ans: Symptoms associated with depression are change in body weight, constant sleep problems, tiredness, inability to think clearly, agitation, greatly slowed behaviour, and thoughts of death and suicide. Other symptoms include excessive guilt or feelings of worthlessness.
Symptoms associated with mania are that people become euphoric (‘high’), extremely active, excessively talkative and easily distractible.

Q2: Describe the characteristics of children with hyperactivity.
Ans: Hyperactive children often have Attention-deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), which can lead to more serious issues if not addressed. They typically show disruptive or externalising behaviours. The two main features of ADHD are:

Inattention: These children struggle to focus during tasks or play. Common signs include:
i) Difficulty listening or concentrating
ii) Problems following instructions
iii)Disorganisation and forgetfulness
iv) Inability to complete assignments
v) Quickly losing interest in unexciting activities

Hyperactivity-Impulsivity: Children may act without thinking, making it hard for them to wait or take turns. They often:
i) Fidget or squirm
ii) Run around aimlessly
iii) Talk excessively

Parents and teachers often describe these children as being "driven by a motor" due to their constant activity. Boys are diagnosed with ADHD four times more often than girls.

Q3: What are the consequences of alcohol substance addiction?
Ans: In substance abuse, there are recurrent and significant adverse consequences related to the use of substances. People who regularly ingest drugs damage their family and social relationships, perform poorly at work, and create physical hazards.
In substance dependence, there is intense craving for the substance to which the person is addicted, and the person shows tolerance, withdrawal symptoms and compulsive drug-taking. Tolerance means that the person has to use more and more of a substance to get the same effect. Withdrawal refers to physical symptoms that occur when a person stops or cuts down on the use of a psychoactive substance, i.e. a substance that has the ability to change an individual’s consciousness, mood and thinking processes.

Q4: Can a distorted body image lead to eating disorders? Classify the various forms of it.
Ans: Yes, a distorted body image can lead to eating disorders. The various forms of eating disorders are anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, and binge eating.
(i) Anorexia nervosa: In this eating disorder, the individual has a distorted body image that leads her/him to see herself/himself as overweight. Often refusing to eat, exercising compulsively and developing unusual habits such as refusing to eat in front of others, the anorexic may lose large amounts of weight and even starve herself/himself to death.
(ii) Bulimia nervosa: In this disorder, the individual may eat excessive amounts of food, then purge her/his body of food by using medicines such as laxatives or diuretics or by vomiting. The person often feels disgusted and ashamed when s/he binges and is relieved of tension and negative emotions after purging.
(iii) Binge eating disorder: In this disorder, there are frequent episodes of out-of-control eating.

Q5: “Physicians make diagnosis looking at a person’s physical symptoms”. How are psychological disorders diagnosed?
Ans: Psychological disorders are diagnosed through various methods, including observations, interviews, and counselling. Historically, abnormal behaviour was often attributed to supernatural forces, such as evil spirits or the devil. In many cultures, a shaman or medicine man was believed to communicate with these forces, helping individuals understand their afflictions and how to address them. Over time, the understanding of psychological disorders evolved, leading to two main approaches:

• Biological Approach: This perspective suggests that strange behaviours arise from physical issues in the body or brain. Modern research links many psychological disorders to biological processes. For some disorders, correcting these biological issues can improve functioning.
• Psychological Approach: This viewpoint posits that psychological problems stem from how individuals think, feel, or perceive their surroundings.

The American Psychiatric Association (APA) has created a manual, the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5), which classifies various psychological disorders. This manual evaluates patients on multiple dimensions, considering biological, psychological, and social factors. In India and other regions, the International Classification of Diseases (ICD-10) is used. This classification, developed by the World Health Organisation (WHO), provides descriptions of clinical features and diagnostic guidelines for each disorder. Understanding psychological disorders requires recognising the interplay of various factors, including:

• Biological factors (genetics, brain chemistry)
• Psychological factors (thought patterns, emotions)
• Social factors (environment, relationships)

In summary, diagnosing psychological disorders involves a comprehensive approach that considers multiple aspects of an individual's life, rather than focusing solely on symptoms.

Q6: Distinguish between obsessions and compulsions.
Ans: Obsession is the inability to stop thinking about a particular idea or topic. The person involved often finds these thoughts to be unpleasant and shameful, while Compulsions are the need to perform certain
behaviours over and over again. Many compulsions deal with counting, ordering, checking, touching and washing. People with OCD struggle to control these thoughts and behaviours, which can interfere with their daily lives.

Q7: Can a long-standing pattern of deviant behaviour be considered abnormal? Elaborate.
Ans: The concept of abnormal behaviour can be understood through two main approaches:

Deviation from Social Norms: Many psychologists define abnormal behaviour as actions that differ significantly from what society considers normal. This includes:
i) Behaviours, thoughts, and emotions that violate societal norms.
ii) Norms are shaped by a society's culture, history, values, and institutions.
iii) For instance, aggressive behaviour may be accepted in competitive cultures but viewed as abnormal in societies that value cooperation, such as in India.
iv)As societal values evolve, so do perceptions of what is considered abnormal.

Maladaptive Behaviour: Another perspective suggests that abnormal behaviour is maladaptive, meaning it hinders an individual's well-being and growth. Key points include:
i) Normality should be assessed based on whether behaviour promotes individual and group well-being.
ii) Well-being encompasses not just survival but also personal growth and fulfilment, as described in Maslow's hierarchy of needs.
iii) For example, a student who remains silent despite having questions may be exhibiting maladaptive behaviour.
iv) This suggests underlying issues such as vulnerability, inability to cope, or environmental stressors.

Despite various definitions of abnormality, most share common features known as the four Ds: deviance, distress, dysfunction, and danger. These characteristics help identify psychological disorders:

• Deviance: Behaviour that is unusual or extreme.
• Distress: Behaviour that causes discomfort to the individual or others.
• Dysfunction: Behaviour that disrupts daily functioning.
• Danger: Behaviour that poses risks to oneself or others.

Hence, abnormal behaviour can be seen as:

• A deviation from societal norms.
• Maladaptive actions that interfere with personal growth.
• Behaviour that exhibits the four Ds: deviance, distress, dysfunction, and danger.

Q8: While speaking in public the patient changes topics frequently, is this a positive or a negative symptom of schizophrenia? Describe the other symptoms and sub-types of schizophrenia.
Ans: Positive symptoms: These are ‘pathological excesses’ or ‘bizarre additions’ to a person’s behaviour. Delusions, disorganised thinking and speech,  heightened perception and hallucinations, and inappropriate affect are the ones most often found in schizophrenia.
Negative symptoms: These are ‘pathological deficits’ and include poverty of speech, blunted and flat affect, loss of volition, and social withdrawal. People with schizophrenia show alogia or poverty of
speech, i.e. a reduction in speech and speech content. Many people with schizophrenia show less anger, sadness, joy, and other feelings than most people do. Thus, they have blunted affect. Some show no emotions at all, a condition known as flat affect. Also, patients with schizophrenia experience avolition, or apathy and an inability to start or complete a course of action. People with this disorder may withdraw socially and become totally focused on their own ideas and fantasies.
Sub-types of Schizophrenia: According to DSM-IV-TR, the sub-types of schizophrenia and their characteristics are:

• Paranoid type: Dominated by delusions or auditory hallucinations without disorganised behaviour.
• Disorganised type: Characterised by disorganised speech and behaviour, with inappropriate or flat affect.
• Catatonic type: Marked by extreme motor immobility or excessive activity, including negativism or mutism.
• Undifferentiated type: Symptoms do not fit any specific subtype but meet general criteria.
• Residual type: Previous episodes of schizophrenia with no positive symptoms but ongoing negative symptoms.

Q9: What do you understand by the term ‘dissociation’? Discuss its various forms.
Ans: Dissociation can be viewed as the severance of the connections between ideas and emotions. Dissociation involves feelings of unreality, estrangement, depersonalisation, and sometimes a loss or shift of identity. Sudden, temporary alterations of consciousness that blot out painful experiences are a defining characteristic of dissociative disorders. Four conditions are included in this group: dissociative amnesia, dissociative fugue, dissociative identity disorder, and depersonalisation.
Various forms of dissociation are as follows:
(i) Dissociative amnesia: It is characterised by extensive but selective memory loss that has no known organic cause (e.g. head injury). Some people cannot remember anything about their past. Others can no longer recall specific events, people, places, or objects, while their memory for other events remains intact. This disorder is often associated with overwhelming stress.
(ii) Dissociative fugue: It has, as its essential feature, an unexpected travel away from home and workplace, the assumption of a new identity, and the inability to recall the previous identity. The fugue usually ends when the person suddenly ‘wakes up’ with no memory of the events that occurred during the fugue.
(iii) Dissociative identity disorder: It is often referred to as multiple personality, and is the most dramatic of the dissociative disorders. It is often associated with traumatic experiences in childhood. In this disorder, the person assumes alternate personalities that may or may not be aware of each other.
(iv) Depersonalisation: It involves a dreamlike state in which the person has a sense of being separated both from self and from reality. In depersonalisation, there is a change of self-perception, and the person’s sense of reality is temporarily lost or changed.

Q10: What are phobias? If someone had an intense fear of snakes, could this simple phobia be a result of faulty learning? Analyse how this phobia could have developed.
Ans: Phobias are irrational fears associated with specific objects, people, or situations. They can significantly impact daily life and are often categorised into three main types:

• Specific Phobias: Intense fears of particular animals, objects, or situations, such as snakes or heights.
• Social Phobias: Fear of social interactions, leading to embarrassment or anxiety in public settings.
• Agoraphobia: Fear of unfamiliar situations, often resulting in avoidance of leaving home.

If someone has an intense fear of snakes, this specific phobia may not stem from faulty learning. Instead, it can develop through:

• Gradual Exposure: Over time, repeated exposure to snakes or related stimuli can heighten fear.
• Generalised Anxiety: A predisposition to anxiety may lead to specific phobias.
• Negative Experiences: A traumatic encounter with snakes can trigger a lasting fear response.

Understanding these factors can help in addressing and managing phobias effectively.

Q11: Anxiety has been called the “butterflies in the stomach feeling. At what stage does anxiety become a disorder? Discuss its types.
Ans:  Anxiety is often described as the “butterflies in the stomach” feeling. While everyone experiences worries and fears, anxiety can become a disorder when it significantly interferes with daily life. It is typically defined as a diffuse, vague, and unpleasant feeling of fear and apprehension. Individuals suffering from anxiety may exhibit a combination of the following symptoms: rapid heart rate, shortness of breath, diarrhoea, loss of appetite, fainting, dizziness, sweating, sleeplessness, frequent urination, and tremors. Different types of anxiety disorders and their symptoms include:

•  Generalised Anxiety Disorder: This disorder is characterised by prolonged, vague, and intense fears that are not linked to any specific object. Symptoms include excessive worry about the future and hypervigilance, which involves constantly scanning the environment for potential dangers.
•  Panic Disorder: This disorder involves recurrent anxiety attacks where the individual experiences intense terror. Clinical symptoms may include shortness of breath, dizziness, trembling, palpitations, choking sensations, nausea, chest pain or discomfort, and fears of losing control or dying.
•  Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder: Individuals struggle to control their preoccupation with specific ideas or an overwhelming urge to perform certain acts repeatedly, which disrupts their ability to engage in normal activities. Obsessive behaviour refers to persistent thoughts about a particular idea or topic, often causing distress. Compulsive behaviour involves the repetitive performance of specific actions, such as counting, ordering, checking, touching, and washing.
•  Phobias: These are irrational fears related to specific objects, social interactions, or unfamiliar situations.
• Separation Anxiety Disorder: Characterised by extreme distress when anticipating or experiencing separation from significant attachment figures.