English in India: History, Evolution and Future - 2 | Crash Course for UGC NET English Literature PDF Download

The Indian Education Commission/The Hunter Commission, 1882

Empowered Education

This commission was appointed by Lord Ripon and chaired by William Hunter.

Recommendations

• Local bodies were made responsible for providing primary education, while the commission oversaw the curriculum and teaching methods, including aspects like teacher training, finance, and administration.
• At the primary level, the medium of instruction should be the mother tongue.
• The establishment of a model government high school in each district was proposed.
• Two types of courses were recommended at the secondary stage:
  • ‘A’ type courses leading to university education
  • ‘B’ type courses for vocational training
• The commission emphasised the need for diversifying courses.
• The number of schools for training primary teachers should be increased.
• There was a strong emphasis on Indianizing education.
• In women’s education, the commission highlighted the need for curriculum differentiation, scholarship awards, and improved appointment facilities.
• Education for Muslims was encouraged, with a focus on providing necessary facilities.
• Proper arrangements for the education of backward classes were recommended.

The Indian Universities Commission, 1902

This commission was established to address issues related to education from the primary level up to universities.

Re-organisation of the administration

• The commission aimed to discuss and improve the management of educational systems.

Systematic Supervision of Affiliated Colleges

Language Integration

• Imposition of Well-Defined Conditions: There was a need for more clearly defined conditions for the affiliation of colleges.
• Changes in Curriculum and Examination Methods: Substantial changes were proposed in the curriculum and the methods of examination for affiliated colleges.

The Indian Universities Act, 1904

• Teaching English: English should not be taught as a language until the learner has a strong foundation in their own language.
• Introduction of English as Medium: English should not be introduced as the medium of instruction too early. It should only be introduced when the learner can understand the content being taught in English.
• Age for Introducing English: English should not be introduced as the medium of instruction before the age of 13. Even after that, the study of the vernacular language should continue until the end of the school course.

The Government of India Resolution of 1913/The Gokhale’s Bill

Arguments for the Resolution

• Lack of Suitable Textbooks: There were no suitable textbooks available in Indian languages, and subjects like science and mathematics lacked a technical vocabulary in vernacular languages.
• Insufficient Qualified Teachers: There were not enough qualified teachers to teach technical subjects in vernacular languages.
• Lack of Demand: There was no significant demand for education in vernacular languages.
• Funding Issues: Insufficient funding made it costly to introduce Indian languages as the medium of instruction.
• Reduced Exposure to English: Introducing vernacular languages as the medium of instruction would reduce exposure to English.
• Promotion of English Education: The resolution aimed to promote English education.

Calcutta Commission/Sadler Commission (1917–1919)

• Appointment of the Commission: The Government of India set up a commission to investigate and report on the issues faced by Calcutta University. Dr. M.E. Sadler was appointed as the chairman of this commission.

Separation of High School and University Education

Vernacular Research

• University Teacher Selection : The process of choosing teachers for universities is crucial and should be given careful consideration.

Medium of Instruction

• High Schools : The vernacular language should be used for instruction, except for English and mathematics, which must be taught in English throughout the four-year course.
• High School Examinations : Candidates should be allowed to answer in either the vernacular or English, except for English and mathematics papers.
• Intermediate Colleges and Universities : The medium of instruction shall be English, except when teaching vernacular or classical languages.

Teaching Methods

• Spoken English : Phonetic methods should be employed for teaching spoken English to enhance pronunciation and speaking skills.
• Viva-Voce Tests : A viva-voce test in English should be conducted in intermediate colleges and during university examinations to assess students' spoken English proficiency.

University Education

• English Language Instruction : Universities should distinguish between teaching English for practical use and for literary purposes, offering both to students.
• English Literature Courses : A uniform course in English Literature should not be mandatory for all students in the Faculty of Arts, allowing for flexibility in course selection.
• Vernacular Studies : The scientific study of the vernacular language should be promoted in universities to encourage linguistic research and understanding.
• Tutorials and Research : Active organization of tutorials and advanced research work is essential to enhance the learning experience and foster academic excellence.

Central Advisory Board of Education

• Establishment of the Board : The formation of the Central Advisory Board of Education is deemed necessary to oversee and guide educational policies and practices.

Hartog Committee (1928–1929)

• Purpose of the Committee : The Hartog Committee was established to review the progress and development of education in India.
• Focus on Mass Education : The committee placed greater emphasis on mass education rather than secondary and university education, highlighting the importance of educating a larger segment of the population.
• Inspection and Recommendations : The committee inspected existing educational acts and made recommendations for improvement based on its findings.

Suggestions for Improving Higher Education

Inclusive Learning

• Set up affiliating universities to meet the increasing demand for higher education.
• Recruit teachers for affiliated colleges.
• Encourage technical and commercial education by universities to address unemployment issues.

Suggestions for Enhancing Primary Education

• Improve the quality , pay , and working conditions of teachers.
• Upgrade the syllabus and teaching methods .

Suggestions for Advancing Secondary Education

• Offer diversified courses in middle schools to cater to a broader range of students.
• Enhance university education , women’s education , minority education , and education for backward classes .

Insights from the Abbott-Wood Committee (1936–1937)

• In high schools, the mother tongue should be the primary medium of instruction, while English should be a mandatory subject taught with relatable and realistic methods.
• Vocational education is crucial for equipping students with job-related skills and should be organized according to various vocational fields.
• Vocational education should be on par with literary and science education , and its quality standards should be enhanced.
• Distinct schools for general and vocational education should be established, as they serve different educational purposes.
• There should be two tiers of vocational education: junior vocational schools and senior vocational schools .

Vocational Institutions in Urban Areas

Hands-on Learning

Vocational Institutions in Urban Areas

• Vocational institutions should be established by the government in large cities and major vocational centres to provide skill-based education and training.

Zakir Hussain Committee on Basic Education or Wardha Scheme of Education

Dr. Zakir Hussain led the development of the Wardha scheme of education, also known as Basic Education, which is crucial for elementary education in India.

• Free, universal, and compulsory education for all children aged 7 to 14, regardless of gender.
• The medium of instruction should be the mother tongue of the child.
• Emphasis on the intellectual, emotional, and physical development of the child.
• Inclusion of activities such as spinning and weaving, cardboard and woodwork, leatherwork, and kitchen gardening to align with the educational philosophy.
• Focus on some form of manual and productive work throughout the 7 years of education.

The Sargent Report (1944)

The Sargent Report, introduced in 1944, was the first significant attempt to create a national education system in India. It addressed various issues within the education system and proposed solutions.

Sargent Plan for Pre-primary Education

• The Sargent Plan recommended the establishment of nursery schools to improve pre-primary education.
• Nursery schools aim to provide social experiences and education to enhance children's overall behaviour and development.

Sargent Plan for Primary Education

Language Inclusivity

• Pre-primary education was to be provided free of charge.

Sargent Plan for High School Education

• Senior basic schools were to target the age group 11–14.
• These schools had the provision of one teacher for every 25 students.
• The education was to be given in the mother tongue.

Sargent Plan for High School Education

• The high school education was not free, but 50% of the students were to be provided with free studentship, referring to a scholarship.
• The high schools were intended to be of two types— academic and technical.
• The academic schools were intended to impart education in arts, pure science, etc.

Sargent Plan for University Education

• The university degree course was to last three years.
• Appointment of competent and well-trained teachers.
• Promote cooperation among the universities.

University Education Commission (1948) or Radhakrishnan Commission

• The federal language should be developed through the assimilation of words from various sources and the retention of words which have already entered Indian languages from different sources.
• Technical and scientific terminology should be adopted, and the borrowed words should be properly assimilated.
• English should be replaced as early as possible by an Indian language as the medium of instruction for higher education.
• This language cannot be Sanskrit on account of vital difficulties.
• Pupils at higher secondary and university stages should be proficient in three languages : the regional language, the federal language, and English.

One Script for All

Cultural Learning

There should be only one script— Devanagari —for all languages, and the federal language should be improved.

Importance of English

English should be taught in high schools and universities to keep up with the constantly increasing flow of knowledge.

Secondary Education Commission (1952–53)

The medium of instruction in secondary schools should mainly be the mother tongue or regional language, with special support for linguistic minorities as advised by the Central Advisory Board of Education.

Language Learning in Middle School

• Every child should learn at least two languages during middle school.
• English and Hindi should be introduced by the end of the junior basic stage, ensuring no two languages are taught in the same year.
• At the high and higher secondary stages, students should study at least two languages, one of which must be the mother tongue or regional language.

Choice of Language in Higher Education

• At the end of middle school, pupils should choose to continue with Hindi or English in high or higher secondary school based on their desired courses.

Official Languages Commission

• Hindi would be accepted as an alternative language for UPSC recruitment.
• The language of the Supreme Court would be Hindi, and it would also be the language of all the high courts in the state. This led to protests in states like Assam, Tamil Nadu, and Bengal.

Measures Suggested by Jawaharlal Nehru

Linguistic Unity

• Freedom of Language in States : Each state can conduct its business in the language of its choice, whether it is a regional language or English.
• Inter-State Communication : Communication between states will be in English or include a proper translation.
• Non-Hindi States and Central Government : Non-Hindi states can correspond with the Central Government in English.
• Language at Central Level : English will still be used for business at the central level.
• Civil Service Examination : The All India Civil Service Examination will continue to be held in English.

Three Language Formula

• Regional Language
• Hindi Language
• English

The 'three-language formula' was officially accepted at the National Integration Conference in 1961. Following this, the Official Languages Act was enacted in 1967, which stated that Hindi and English would remain as official languages, with a gradual phasing out of English for an indefinite time.

The Education Commission (1964–66)/ Kothari Commission

• Free and Compulsory Education : Education should be free and compulsory for all children up to the age of 14. Effective programs need to be created to minimize resource wastage and stagnation in schools, ensuring that every enrolled child completes the required course.
• 10 2 3 Pattern of Education : This refers to the structure of education, which includes 10 years of school education, 2 years of secondary education, and 3 years of higher education.
• Development of Languages : Regional languages should be used in primary and secondary education. Steps should be taken to adopt regional languages as mediums of education at the university level.

Three Language Formula

Inclusive Learning

• Adoption of the Formula: Every government should embrace the Three Language Formula to promote linguistic diversity and harmony.
• Development of Hindi: There should be concerted efforts to develop Hindi as a link language, facilitating communication across different regions.
• Establishment of Colleges: Encouragement for the establishment of colleges and higher education institutions in non-Hindi states, using Hindi as the medium of instruction.
• Teaching of Sanskrit: Facilities for teaching Sanskrit should be made available at both school and university levels to preserve and promote this ancient language.
• Emphasis on English and International Languages: A strong emphasis should be placed on the study of English and other international languages to enhance global communication and understanding.

Equalization of Educational Opportunity

• Addressing Regional Inequities: Efforts should be directed towards addressing regional disparities in educational facilities, particularly in rural and disadvantaged areas.
• Integration of Science and Mathematics: Schools focusing on science and mathematics should be an integral part of the general education framework until the end of the school stage.
• Emphasis on Education for Agriculture and Industry: There should be a strong emphasis on education tailored for agriculture and industry to meet the specific needs of these sectors.
• Support for Research in Universities: Increased support and funding for research in universities is essential to foster innovation and academic excellence.
• Establishment of New Universities: The establishment of new universities is crucial to cater to the growing demand for higher education.
• Development of Part-time Education and Correspondence Courses: Part-time education and correspondence courses should be developed on a large scale to provide flexible learning options.
• Dissemination of Literary and Adult Education: Dissemination of literary resources and promotion of adult education programs is important for lifelong learning.
• Education for Minorities: Education for minorities should be prioritized to ensure equal opportunities and inclusivity.