Literary Theory Post World War II - 3 Chapter Notes | Crash Course for UGC NET English Literature PDF Download

New Criticism

Literary Insights

• New Criticism emerged in America during the late 1920s and early 1930s, paralleling English modernist criticism.
• This approach asserts that literary works inhabit their own unique worlds, governed by internal rules that discerning readers should recognize and comprehend.
• According to New Criticism, a literary piece possesses its own identity, moral core, and significance, irrespective of the author's intentions.
• While readers may interpret texts differently, the literary work itself remains constant, complete, and independent of authorial input for its meaning.

Example of Interpretation

• For example, Moby Dick (1851) by Herman Melville faced initial rejection because readers anticipated a Victorian narrative, judging the book solely based on the author's name.
• Over time, it gained recognition and became a global classic, illustrating how a text can be interpreted from various angles.
• This process involves the writer encoding a message in the text, which the reader decodes and interprets, leading to a meaning that may differ from the author's intent.

Nature of Text

• The meaning of a text cannot be reduced to mere paraphrase or translation into simpler language.
• Altering even a single line, image, or word can transform the text and its meaning.

• The term "new criticism" gained traction with the publication of John Crowe Ransom's The New Criticism in 1941.
• The movement was rooted in earlier works such as T.S. Eliot's "The Function of Criticism" (1933), I. A. Richards's "Practical Criticism" (1929), and William Empson's "Seven Types of Ambiguity" (1930).

Introduction to New Criticism

Textual Insights

New Criticism is a way of looking at literature that became popular in the early 20th century. It focuses on the text itself, without considering the author's background or the reader's personal feelings. Critics who follow this approach believe that a literary work should be seen as an independent object, separate from its creator and the time it was written.

Key Terms in New Criticism

• Intentional Fallacy: This concept suggests that an author's intentions are not relevant or helpful when evaluating a literary work. For example, if an author tries to convey a message but the reader fails to grasp it, this gap is known as the 'intentional fallacy.'
• Affective Fallacy: This term refers to the idea that different readers interpret texts based on their personal understanding, which may not align with the author's intended meaning.
• Heresy of Paraphrase: This notion points to the mistaken belief that comprehending a literary work is merely about summarizing or rephrasing it, rather than delving into its deeper significance.
• Close Reading/Explication de Texte: This involves reading a text meticulously and analyzing each word. Critics like Cleanth Brooks, William K. Wimsatt, John Crowe Ransom, and Allen Tate argue that only through close reading can one fully appreciate the intricacies of a literary piece.

Features of New Criticism

• New Criticism stresses the distinction between literature and other forms of expression, viewing the text as an autonomous entity, separate from its author and historical context.
• It underscores the separation of the text from both the author (intentional fallacy) and the reader (affective fallacy), emphasizing structure and interrelatedness.
• The New Critics did not focus on concepts such as difference, defamiliarization, or deviance, nor were they concerned with 'foregrounding' or 'deformation.'

Introduction to New Critics

Artful Reflection

New Critics prioritize the meaning, tone, emotions, and implied worldview of a poem over its structure. While they acknowledge meter and stanzaic forms, their main concern is the organic nature of poetry.

They believe that the author is integral to the text and that the meaning and vision are found solely within the words, rather than in the author’s biography or psychology. New Critics view literary works as linguistic artifacts and verbal structures that communicate between the artist and the reader.

They argue that works of art exist independently, but this does not mean they are completely separate from life. New Critics do not adhere to the "Art for Art's sake" ideology.

Key Texts in New Criticism

• Principles of Literary Criticism (1924), The Meaning of Meaning (1923), Practical Criticism (1929), The Philosophy of Rhetoric (1936) by I. A. Richards.
• Miss Emily and the Bibliographers (1908), On the Limits of Poetry (1928–1948) by Allen Tate.
• Seven Types of Ambiguity (1930) by William Empson.
• The Use of Poetry and the Use of Criticism (1933) by T. S. Eliot.
• The World’s Body (1938), New Criticism (1941), God without Thunder (An Article; 1930) by J. C. Ransom.
• The Well Wrought Urn (1947) by Cleanth Brooks.

The Common Pursuit ( 1952 ) by F. R. Leavis

Archetypal Patterns

Language as Gesture ( 1952 ) by R. P. Blackmur

Understanding Poetry ( 1938 ) by R. P. Warren

The Verbal Icon ( 1954 ) by W. K. Wimsatt and Monroe Beardsley

New Critics stressed the links between literature and the real world. New Criticism is both humanistic and empirical, providing useful tools for practical literary criticism. It represents a major contribution from the English-speaking world to modern literary theory. After more than forty years of dominance, New Criticism has been supplanted by approaches such as structuralism, deconstruction, Marxism, new historicism, and audience-oriented criticism. These newer methods focus more on linguistics, context, or the reader rather than the text itself. However, the contributions and methods of New Critics remain relevant, as their theories resonate with many ordinary readers.

Key Terms in Archetype Criticism

Psychological Archetypes

• Anima: Jung's concept of the feminine traits present in both men and women, particularly the feminine aspects found in males.
• Animus: The masculine traits found in a female.
• Persona: The outward image we project to others, which may not necessarily reflect our true selves.
• Shadow: The hidden aspects of one's psyche that are not revealed to the outside world, even though they are real.
• Collective Unconscious: The repository of archetypal memories or ideas shared by all humans, regardless of their individual experiences, often without their awareness.

Key Texts of Archetype Theory

• Northrop Frye's Anatomy of Criticism (1957).
• Joseph Campbell's The Hero with a Thousand Faces (1949).
• Annis Pratt's Archetypal Patterns in Women's Fiction .
• J. G. Frazer's The Golden Bough (1890).

Psychoanalytic Criticism

• Peter Barry defines psychoanalytic criticism in his book Beginning Theory: An Introduction to Literary and Cultural Theory (1994) as a type of literary criticism that employs psychoanalysis techniques to interpret literature.
• A psychoanalytic critic examines the unconscious elements within the author's mind, explores the creative process behind literary works, and studies how literature impacts its readers.
• Key figures in this field include Sigmund Freud, Jacques Lacan, Shoshana Felman, Jane Gallop, Norman Holland, George Klein, Elizabeth Wright, Frederick Hoffman, and Simon Lesser.

Sigmund Freud's Key Concepts

Psychic Childhood

• Unconscious Mind: Freud proposed that a significant part of our mental activity occurs unconsciously, beyond our awareness.
• Structure of the Mind: He introduced the Id, Ego, and Super-Ego as the three fundamental components of the mind.

Id/Unconscious

• The Id is the unconscious part of our mind that holds our emotions and sexual energy, known as libido.
• It operates on the pleasure principle, seeking to fulfill instinctual needs without considering moral or social rules.
• The Id is the origin of many of our desires and aggressive impulses.

Ego

• The Ego operates at both conscious and unconscious levels, managing our suppressed desires.
• It acts as a rational mediator, allowing the Id's urges to be expressed in socially acceptable ways.
• The Ego functions on the reality principle, balancing immediate needs with practical considerations.

Super-Ego/Conscious

• The Super-Ego acts as a moral guardian, instilling a sense of idealism and ethical standards.
• It is associated with the morality principle, guiding behavior according to societal values.

Child Psychology and Sexuality: Oedipus Complex

• Freud's work also delves into child psychology and the role of sexuality in development.
• He proposed that children pass through various stages characterized by different erogenous zones, where they derive pleasure.
• These stages occur within the first five years of life and include:
• Oral Stage: Pleasure derived from sucking and oral activities.
• Anal Stage: Focus on sensations and pleasure related to the anal area.
• Phallic Stage: Preoccupation with the genitals, also known as the phallic erogenous zone.
• The Oedipus Complex refers to a child's unconscious desire for the parent of the opposite sex and feelings of rivalry towards the parent of the same sex.

Understanding Dreams: Freud and Lacan

Psychological Growth

Freud's Theory of Dreams

• Oedipus Complex: Freud believed that when a child is around five years old, he becomes very attached to his mother. Initially, his connection with his father is strong, but as his desire for his mother grows, he starts to see his father as a rival. This is the beginning of the Oedipus complex, where the child wishes to take his father's place beside his mother.
• Dreams and the Unconscious: Freud argued that dreams are a way for suppressed wishes to express themselves, offering a glimpse into the unconscious mind. He considered dream interpretation as the best way to understand what happens in our minds when we are not fully aware, supporting the idea of the unconscious.
• Dreamwork: This concept in Freud's work refers to the mental processes that change the underlying thoughts of a dream into the actual content of the dream.

Lacan's Perspective on the Unconscious

• Unconscious and Language: Lacan believed that the unconscious functions like a language, using linguistic forms to express itself. He saw the unconscious as a complex network similar to language, and psychoanalysis uncovers this linguistic structure within the unconscious.
• Three Orders of Personality: Lacan proposed that personalities are divided into three cognitive dimensions: Imaginary, Symbolic, and Real.

Imaginary Order

• In this dimension, there is no clear boundary between the subject (the self) and the object (others).
• The self is not central in distinguishing between the subject and the object.
• For example, during the preverbal or early verbal stage, a child begins to feel separate from her mother and other people, but her sense of self is still in the process of developing.

The Symbolic Realm

Reflective Journey

• The Symbolic realm initiates the subject's quest for an unattainable lost object. For instance, when an infant observes its reflection in a mirror, it begins to recognize itself, possibly feeling envy towards the person holding it. Furthermore, the introduction of language to infants establishes a symbolic link.

The Real Realm

• The Real realm transcends language and is characterized as the domain of the impossible. It encompasses all that cannot be articulated within the Imaginary and Symbolic realms.
• While the Real is fundamentally unattainable, it can be approached under two extreme conditions:
  • When all of our desires are satiated
  • When we confront death

Key Texts in Psychoanalytic Criticism

• "The Interpretation of Dreams" (1899) by Sigmund Freud
• "The Four Fundamental Concepts of Psychoanalysis" (1978) by Jacques Lacan

• "Hamlet" by Shakespeare
• "Sons and Lovers" by D. H. Lawrence
• "A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man" by James Joyce
• "The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock" by T. S. Eliot

Concerns of Freud and Lacan

Freud and Lacan both concentrate on themes of identity, development, sexuality, and the therapeutic role of psychoanalysis. Lacan introduces a linguistic dimension to Freud's ideas. A central concept for both is the unconscious. Psychoanalytic concepts can be applied to various literary genres and art forms, including:

• Fiction
• Poetry
• Drama
• Folklore
• Nonfiction
• Visual Arts (Painting, Sculpture, Architecture)
• Film
• Music

Any human creation featuring imagery, narrative elements, or relating to the psychology of its creators or audience is subject to psychoanalytic interpretation.