Literary Criticism - 6 Chapter Notes | Crash Course for UGC NET English Literature PDF Download

T.S. Eliot

Literary Modernism

T.S. Eliot, born in 1888 in St. Louis, United States, came from a long line of Puritans who migrated to Massachusetts in 1670. He had a diverse teaching career at prestigious institutions like Harvard, Paris, and Oxford. After marrying in 1915, he moved to England and became a British citizen in 1922.

Some of his famous poetry collections include:

• Prufrock and Other Observations (1917)
• Ash Wednesday: Fragments (1934)
• Four Quartets (1935–40)
• On Poetry and Poets (1957)

His important scholarly work is found in Selected Essays (1932).

Eliot was also a renowned playwright, with notable works such as:

• The Rock, A Pageant Play (1934)
• Murder in the Cathedral (1935)
• The Family Reunion (1939)
• The Cocktail Party (1950)
• The Confidential Clerk (1954)
• The Elder Statesman (1959)

In recognition of his exceptional contributions, Eliot was awarded the Order of Merit and the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1948. The Order of Merit honors outstanding service in various fields, including the armed forces, civil service, science, and the arts.

Critical Concepts of T. S. Eliot

Eliot, a leading English critic of the 20th century, brought a fresh perspective to artistic analysis, moving away from 19th-century traditions. His ideas, expressed in around 500 essays and reviews, have made him a significant figure in modern thought. Clive Bell praised Eliot for his writing and poetic skills. To better understand Eliot's analysis, it's essential to grasp some of his fundamental concepts.

Objective

Macbeth's Tension

The phrase "objective correlative" was introduced by T.S. Eliot in his analysis of Hamlet . It refers to the use of objects, situations, and events to convey a specific emotion or feeling. For example, in Eliot's poem The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock , the images of "yellow smoke" and "yellow fog" represent the urban ennui and absurdity of modern life.

Eliot considered the objective correlative to be a fundamental method of expressing feelings in art. He defined it as a collection of objects, circumstances, and events that, when presented, evoke a particular emotion. This technique ensures that the intended feeling is triggered by the external realities depicted in the artwork.

In Macbeth , Eliot provides an example of the objective correlative through Lady Macbeth's "walking-scene". Her psychological anguish is conveyed not through direct expression but through the external circumstances that reflect her despair. This approach allows the audience to grasp her emotions without explicit statements of sadness.

The objective correlative is seen as a way to depict emotions indirectly, using external elements to evoke specific feelings in the audience. Eliot's emphasis on this technique highlights its importance in conveying complex emotions through art.

A poet has no identity. . . he is consistently filling some other body.

Emotional Aesthetics

The phrase ‘Aesthetic Distance’ refers to the effect created when a feeling or experience is so clearly expressed through proper structure that it can be seen as objectively acknowledged, separate from the immediate emotional insight of its creator.

Interpretations of ‘Objective Correlative’

• Various critics have understood the term ‘Objective Correlative’ in different ways.
• According to Cleanth Brooks, it means ‘ organic metaphor ’.
• According to Sister Mary Cleophas Costello, it signifies ‘ the intensity of meaning structure ’.

Dissociation of Sensibility

• The term ‘ Dissociation of Sensibility ’ is the opposite of ‘ Unification of Sensibility ’.
• Eliot first used this term in his essay on the Metaphysical Poets in the early 20th century, specifically in 1921.
• In his analysis, the relationship between the mind and emotions in art and poetry is crucial.
• The success of an artist's or writer's aesthetic execution depends on the strength of their rationality.

Unification of Sensibility

• Eliot suggests that a poetical achievement is comparable to the idea.
• As per T. S. Eliot, the unification of sensibility means integrating thought (reason) and feeling.
• He believes that only by combining these two aspects can a poet create successful work.
• In contrast, ‘ Dissociation of Sensibility ’ leads to poor poetry.

The unification of sensibility in the Metaphysical poets laments the dissociation of reason and feeling in the late 17th century.

Artistic Reflection

Thoughts and Feelings

• In his essay on the Metaphysical poets, T. S. Eliot discusses how thoughts and feelings blend together.
• He notes that while Tennyson and Browning are poets who think, they do not feel their ideas as easily as one senses a rose's fragrance.
• For Donne, an idea was an experience that changed his reasoning.
• A poet needs to be open to various experiences; the average person’s experiences are often chaotic and incomplete.
• Eliot considers Browning a lesser poet because he believes Browning does not turn his thoughts into profound emotional experiences.
• According to Eliot, a great writer must fully experience and embrace their ideas, much like enjoying the scent of a rose.
• In contrast, a lesser writer lacks this depth of patience.

Imaginative and Critical Forces

• The harmonious interaction between a writer’s imaginative and critical abilities is another aspect of unifying reason, as noted by Eliot.
• A writer should not only create but also apply critical thinking to their work.
• This includes revising and refining their creations to give them a polished form.
• Eliot believes it is vital for a writer to act as a critic, able to interpret and evaluate their own work.

Eliot's Perspective on Tradition

Autumn Harmony

• In his essay "On Tradition," which is part of the book "After Strange Gods," T.S. Eliot emphasizes the importance of tradition for writers. He believes that writers should learn from past authors and incorporate their relevant ideas into their own work.

• Comprehending Tradition

  Tradition encompasses all ongoing activities and customs, from significant rituals to our daily ways of adapting to new experiences. It reflects the deep connections among people living in the same area and involves a solid framework that could be called "taboo." " This term is often used negatively, which Eliot finds peculiar.

  We usually recognize the importance of these elements only when they start to fade away, much like noticing tree leaves when autumn winds begin to blow.

  The poet's mind serves as a container for gathering and storing various feelings, phrases, and images until the right elements come together to form a new composition.

  The difference between the present and the past lies in the present's ability to understand the past in a way that the past itself could not.

Quotes by T. S. Eliot

Cultural Reflection

“Only those who will risk going far can possibly find out how far one can go.”

“This is the way the world ends, not with a bang but a whimper.”

“April is the cruelest month, breeding lilacs out of the dead land, mixing memory and desire, stirring dull roots with spring rain.”

Importance of Custom in T. S. Eliot's Perspective

• Custom is emphasized by Eliot as a vital aspect for understanding our familial connections within the same community.
• It helps in comprehending the relationships and bonds that tie individuals together in a shared social context.

I.A. Richards and New Criticism

I.A. Richards, an English literary critic from Cheshire, is regarded as one of the founders of New Criticism. While teaching at Cambridge University ’s Magdalene College, he wrote influential works such as:

• The Meaning of Meaning (1923, with C. K. Ogden)
• Principles of Literary Criticism (1924)
• Practical Criticism (1929)

Along with C. K. Ogden, Richards developed Basic English, a simplified language with a core vocabulary of 850 words.

Major Works of I.A. Richards

• The Foundations of Aesthetics (Co-authored with C. K. Ogden and James Wood, 1922)
• Science and Poetry (1926; revised as Poetries and Sciences, 1970)
• Mencius on the Mind (1932)
• Coleridge on Imagination (1934)
• The Philosophy of Rhetoric (1936)
• The Meaning of Meaning (co-authored with C. K. Ogden, 1946)

Speculative Instruments (1955)

Artistic Interpretation

Speculative Instruments is a book written by I. A. Richards in 1955. In this book, Richards explores the concept of speculative instruments, which refers to tools or methods used for making predictions or speculations about various subjects. The book delves into the nature of speculation, its applications, and the role of instruments in facilitating speculative thinking. Richards discusses the importance of critical analysis and reflective thinking in the process of speculation, emphasizing the need for a systematic approach to evaluating information and making informed predictions. Through various examples and case studies, Richards illustrates how speculative instruments can be used effectively in different fields, such as science, literature, and social sciences. The book serves as a guide for researchers, scholars, and anyone interested in enhancing their speculative abilities and making accurate predictions based on available information.

Beyond (1974)

Beyond is a book written by I. A. Richards in 1974. In this book, Richards explores the concept of meaning and interpretation in literature and communication. He delves into the complexities of language and how words can convey different meanings depending on the context. Richards emphasizes the importance of understanding the nuances of language and the role of the reader or listener in interpreting meaning. The book also discusses the limitations of language and the challenges of conveying precise meaning through words alone. Overall, Beyond offers insights into the intricate relationship between language, meaning, and interpretation, encouraging readers to think critically about how they understand and communicate ideas.

Poetries (1974)

Poetries is a book written by I. A. Richards in 1974. In this book, Richards explores the art and craft of poetry, delving into its various forms, techniques, and the emotions it evokes. He discusses the intricacies of poetic language, including the use of imagery, metaphor, and rhythm, and how these elements contribute to the overall impact of a poem. Richards also reflects on the role of the poet in society and the significance of poetry as a means of expression and communication. Through detailed analyses of different poems and poetic styles, Poetries offers readers a deeper appreciation for the beauty and complexity of poetry, encouraging them to engage with poetry on a more profound level.

Complementarities (1976)

Complementarities is a book written by I. A. Richards in 1976. In this work, Richards explores the concept of complementarities, which refers to the idea that different elements or aspects can complement and enhance each other. He delves into various fields, including literature, art, and science, to illustrate how complementarities play a crucial role in understanding and appreciating complex systems. Richards emphasizes the importance of recognizing and embracing these complementarities to gain a deeper insight into various subjects. The book encourages readers to adopt a more holistic approach, considering the interplay between different components and how they contribute to the overall understanding of a topic. Through engaging examples and thoughtful analysis, Complementarities offers a fresh perspective on the interconnectedness of various elements in different domains.

Key Important Works

The Principles of Literary Criticism

• Written in 1924, this work presents a detailed theory on how the mind reacts to rhythm and metre in poetry.
• Richards' theory is both relative and pure, concentrating on the sound effects produced by prosody.
• He posits that prosody alone has minimal psychological impact.
• According to Richards, every aspect of a poem is shaped by its natural environment.

Practical Criticism (1929)

• In this work, I. A. Richards introduced the idea of close reading, emphasizing the importance of focusing on the text itself rather than the author's background.
• Richards argued that considering the author's details diminishes the vitality of the text.
• To support his point, he removed authorial information from sonnets, including those by Longfellow and lesser-known poets.
• At the University of Cambridge, Richards had students interpret a poem without any titles or biographical details, demonstrating that the text exists independently and allows for various interpretations.

The Meaning of Meaning (co-authored with C. K. Ogden)

• Created in 1946 with C. K. Ogden, this work examines the relationship between words and their referents.
• Central to the book is a three-part semiotic model involving symbols, thoughts, and referents.
• Symbols encompass words and images used for communication and thought.
• Referents are the actual entities in the world, such as places and objects.
• Thoughts represent the brain's connection between referents and symbols.
• Ogden and Richards elucidate that words and things are linked through their associations in specific contexts, highlighting the significance of symbols in our lives.

Irving Babbitt

Literary Scholar

Irving Babbitt was an American scholar and literary critic known for leading the American New Humanist critical movement. Born in Dayton, Ohio, he studied Classics at Harvard College and later became a professor of Romance Languages at Williams College. He eventually returned to Harvard, where he taught French and Comparative Literature until his death in 1933. Babbitt viewed the 19th-century Romantic Movement as a continuation of Jean Jacques Rousseau ’s philosophy of naturalism.

Methodology and Philosophy

J. David Hoeveler describes Babbitt's humanistic methodology as a dualistic view of human intuition, consisting of two opposing forces:

• Expansive Impulse: Human instinct has an expansive impulse seeking freedom from constraints, pursuing freedom of will and imagination.
• Standard of Control: It also possesses a standard of control, a power for order and balance.

Irving Babbitt passed away in 1933.

Famous Works

Some of his notable works include:

• Literature and the American College (1908)
• The New Laokoön (1910)
• The Masters of Modern French Criticism (1912)
• Rousseau and Romanticism (1919)
• Democracy and Leadership (1924)
• On Being Creative (1932)
• The Dhammapada (1936)
• Spanish Character, and Other Essays (1940), reprinted as Character and Culture: Essays on East and West

Representative Writings (1981)

Modern Literary Analysis

Representative Writings (1981) is a collection of writings by various authors published by Oxford University Press. The book was edited by R. K. Narayan and contains a wide range of literary works, including essays, short stories, and poems. The writings in this collection reflect the diverse cultural and social landscape of India and offer insights into the lives and experiences of different communities.

Other Important Writers in Literary Criticism

F. R. Leavis

• Frank Raymond Leavis was a British literary critic active in the early to mid 20th century.
• He taught at Downing College, Cambridge, and later at the University of York.
• Leavis was a key figure in English literary criticism, linked with New English at Cambridge.
• He is often associated with the humanistic and moral tradition of Matthew Arnold.
• Leavis criticised the amateur practice of reading and writing that mainly focused on aesthetic effects, known as belletrism.
• He attended Cambridge University and served as a rescue vehicle carrier during World War I.
• In 1932, he founded Scrutiny, a quarterly journal of criticism, with his former wife, Queenie Dorothy Roth.
• Scrutiny was published until 1953 and is considered one of his most significant contributions to English literature.
• Leavis believed that writing should be deeply connected to the analysis of life, which is how a literary critic should assess works based on ethical positions of the author and society.

William Empson

• William Empson, born on 27 September 1906, was a renowned English literary critic.
• He was known for his close reading of literary texts, focusing on the text itself rather than the author's background.
• New Criticism emphasised the text as an independent entity.
• Empson was associated with the New English Curriculum at Cambridge University and was a student of I. A. Richards.
• Though not a New Critic himself, he wrote Seven Types of Ambiguity (1930), which influenced New Criticism.
• This work highlighted ambiguity as a crucial aspect of poetry.
• Jonathan Bate noted that the most recognised English literary critics of the 18th, 19th, and 20th centuries are Johnson, Hazlitt, and Empson, partly due to their humour.

Empson's Educational Journey and Impact

Philosophical Scholarship

• In 1925, Empson obtained a scholarship to Magdalene College, Cambridge, where he initially focused on Mathematics.
• He subsequently shifted his focus to a second degree in English and earned a scholarship after his first year.
• Empson’s Mathematics supervisor, Arthur Stanley Ramsey, expressed disappointment over Empson’s decision to switch to English, as Empson had shown considerable aptitude in Mathematics.
• Empson played a crucial role in advancing New Criticism alongside I. A. Richards, making his work, Practical Criticism ( 1929 ), highly impactful.
• New Criticism and Practical Criticism both examine how texts are understood, but New Criticism delves into deeper underlying beliefs.
• In essence, New Criticism can be viewed as a more intricate version of Practical Criticism.

C. K. Ogden's Early Life and Intellectual Contributions

• Charles Kay Ogden, an English linguist and philosopher, was born on 1 June 1889 and passed away on 20 March 1957.
• He was associated with the contemporary philosophy movement and the British school of Pragmatism.

Ogden's Role in the Heretic Society

• In 1909, C. K. Ogden co-founded the Heretic Society in Cambridge, which aimed to challenge prevailing societal norms and religious doctrines.