Literary Criticism - 4 Chapter Notes | Crash Course for UGC NET English Literature PDF Download

Horace: Life and Contributions

Venetian Classics

• Birth and Background: Horace was born in Venice, Italy, in December 65 BC, and he passed away on November 8, 8 BC, in Rome. He was a remarkable Latin lyric poet and satirist during the time of Emperor Augustus. His father was initially a slave but gained his freedom and managed to send Horace to Rome for education after Horace's birth.
• Education: After his studies in Rome, Horace went to Athens to further his education at the academy and study philosophy. Military Involvement Joining Brutus: Following the assassination of Julius Caesar in March 44 BC, there was political turmoil in the eastern empire. Brutus and Cassius fled to Athens to escape conflict with Caesar's supporters, and Horace joined Brutus' Republican army, earning the title of 'tribunus militum,' a significant honor for the son of a freedman.
• Defeat and Aftermath: After the defeat of Brutus at the Battle of Philippi, Horace escaped the battlefield and later returned to Rome. He found work as a clerk in the treasury while continuing to write poetry, focusing on lyricism. Literary Criticism of Horace Significance as a Critic: Horace is an important figure in literary criticism because of his vibrant qualities as a poet. His main aim was to find a patron in Rome to create poetry that would benefit the state. He saw poetry as a way to inspire patriotic feelings among the people during the Augustan era.
• Role of the Poet: Horace noticed that both ordinary people and the educated tried their hand at writing poetry. He believed that the poet's essential role is to both entertain and educate the reader.

State Exigencies and the Purpose of the Poet

Artistic Insight

• According to Horace, exceptional poetry serves a dual purpose : to offer pleasure and to uplift the morals of society.
• In his work, Epistula ad Pisones , he provides guidance to budding poets on how to enhance their taste and technique.

Aim of Poetry

• Horace perceives the poet as a multifaceted individual who draws from personal experiences and conveys them through language.
• This expression influences listeners by sharing the beauty that the poet perceives in their experiences.
• The fundamental quality of a poet is the wisdom acquired from these experiences. Phrases like “this was once wisdom” or “fuit haec sapientia quondam” are commonly found in the Ars Poetica .
• Literature should be a means to attain the noble objectives of wisdom and justice , particularly when confronted with unchecked vices such as prejudice and pedantry .

Aim of Poetry

• Horace contends that mere auditory pleasure is insufficient; poetry must also foster correct thoughts about human behavior .
• He underscores that the essence of poetry extends beyond thought and communication.
• A poet should aspire to please an audience with refined taste and should refrain from entertaining those captivated by fantasy stories .

In Ars Poetica

Artistic Inspiration

Horace outlines the purpose of poetry as being either beneficial or delightful, or a combination of both. He emphasizes that poetry should not only be pleasurable but also convey truth, meaning it should both teach and entertain.

Poetry as a Blend of Fiction and Facts

Horace views poetry as a form of imitation, but not mere imitation. He believes that poetry often blends with imagination, adding a personal touch. However, he cautions against excessive fancifulness and insists that fiction meant to please should closely resemble truth.

Formation or Conception of Poetry

Horace's conception of poetry is more Platonic than Aristotelian. He believes that every poet possesses a small part of the miraculous charm of Orpheus and Apollo, soothing the restless heart and constructing fragile dreams through their songs.

Like classical thinkers, Horace agrees that inspiration is essential for poetry. Plato, in 'The Republic,' expelled poets from his ideal society due to their potentially disruptive influence, as they produced the wrong kind of poetry.

Controversy between ‘Form’ and ‘Content’

Horace's perspective ignites the debate between 'form' and 'content' in poetry, appearing to favor the latter. He suggests that poets aim to either improve or please, or to combine both in a way that is agreeable and profitable. Any moral lesson should be concise for easy comprehension and retention, as excessive words can overwhelm the mind. Fiction intended to please should be close to the truth to inspire complete belief. Winning support involves merging improvement with pleasure, delighting and instructing the reader simultaneously.

Restating the Emotional Appeal of Poetry

Ancient Poetic Wisdom

Horace's Perspective on Poets as Educators

• Horace is of the opinion that poets have always played the role of effective teachers.
• In ancient times, poets had a significant moral and civilising impact on those who were uncivilised.
• He believes that poetry should be not only beautiful but also pleasing and should guide the soul of the listener.
• Horace merges both romantic and classical perspectives on the mission of a poet.

Poets as Moral Guides

• Horace gives examples of orphans and great poets who have tamed wild animals with their poetry.
• They were able to civilise even the most ferocious beasts like tigers and lions.
• Amphion, a renowned musician from Thebes, had the ability to move rocks with his songs.
• This demonstrates how poets have fulfilled their role as teachers and educators.
• Horace endorses the Aristotelian notion of the passionate appeal of poetry.

Word Choice and Diction

• Horace advises poets to be mindful of their word choice.
• He encourages the use of familiar words without unnecessary elaboration.
• While creating new words is permissible, he prefers those derived from Greek.

Noteworthy Quotes

• ‘We are but dust and shadow.’
• ‘In striving for conciseness, I became obscure.’
• ‘Many heroes like Agamemnon are known, but all are forgotten and unwept, lost in eternal night, because they lack a spirited chronicler.’

John Dryden: A Journey through Early Life, Education, and Literary Career

Aldwincle Heritage

Early Life and Education

• John Dryden was born in Aldwincle, Northamptonshire, where his grandfather was a minister. In 1644, he became a King’s Scholar at Westminster School, known for its strict environment under Dr. Richard Busby.
• Westminster School had a strict and political atmosphere that favored traditionalism and high Anglicanism.
• During his time at Westminster, Dryden wrote an elegy for his classmate Henry, Lord Hastings, who died of smallpox. This poem reflects Dryden's traditionalist views and hints at the execution of King Charles I in 1649.

Career During the Protectorate

• After returning to London during the Protectorate, Dryden worked with John Thurloe, Oliver Cromwell’s Secretary of State.
• At Cromwell’s funeral in 1658, Dryden collaborated with poets John Milton and Andrew Marvell.
• He published his first major poem, ‘Heroic Stanzas’ (1659), as a tribute to Cromwell's legacy.

Restoration and Later Works

• In 1660, Dryden welcomed the Restoration of the monarchy with his poem ‘Astraea Redux’, celebrating Charles II’s return.
• In this work, Dryden portrays the interregnum as a chaotic period, with Charles II restoring peace and order.

Introduction

Neo-Classical Drama

• An Essay on Dramatic Poesy by John Dryden reflects the neo-classical perspective on art, emphasizing structure and morality in drama.
• Dryden, while rooted in classical tradition, draws from writers like Corneille and Horace, showcasing a blend of classical and contemporary thought.

Overview of the Characters and Their Perspectives

• Eugenius : Advocates for the moderns, believing they surpass the ancients by learning from them and building upon their foundations.
• Crites : Defends ancient drama, arguing that the ancients' adherence to Aristotle's unities and principles makes their work superior. He praises Ben Jonson as the finest English dramatist for his commitment to these principles.
• Lisideius : Asserts the superiority of French drama, highlighting the French authors' strict separation of comedy and tragedy. He criticizes post-Jonson English drama for its perceived absurdity.
• Neander : Supports the moderns while respecting the ancients. He argues for the innovation and perfection of tragicomedy as a more pleasing form of stage writing.

Neander's Critique of French Drama

Shakespearean Influence

Neander criticizes French drama primarily for its lack of depth, highlighting several key aspects:

• Single Plot Focus: French drama tends to revolve around a single plot without the richness of subplots, which limits its complexity and engagement.
• Minimal Action: The action in French drama is often minimal, making it less dynamic and captivating compared to other forms of drama.
• Limited Creative Vision: Neander believes that French drama exhibits a restricted creative vision, further contributing to its inferiority when compared to English drama.

He goes on to express a preference for Shakespeare over Ben Jonson, emphasizing the following points:

• Shakespeare's Universality: Neander admires Shakespeare for his expansive and inclusive spirit, as well as his ability to address universal themes that resonate with a wide audience.
• Jonson's Knowledge: While acknowledging Jonson as the most knowledgeable and meticulous writer of his time, Neander believes that Jonson's approach is more limited in scope.
• Broader Connection to Life: Neander favours Shakespeare because of his broader connection to life and the human experience, in contrast to Jonson's narrower focus.

Neander also draws a comparison between the French and Classical traditions, suggesting that both tend to prioritise "the beauty of a statue" over "that of a living person." This further underscores his preference for the depth and vitality found in English drama, particularly in the works of Shakespeare.

Crites on Rhyme in Drama

Crites presents a compelling argument against the use of rhyme in plays, asserting that since people do not naturally speak in rhyme without a specific purpose, it should not be employed on stage. To bolster his case for eliminating rhyme, he references Aristotle, who advocated for tragedy to be written in a style of poetry that closely resembles prose.

• Unrhymed Lines and Nature: Crites believes that unrhymed lines are preferable because they are "closest to nature." He contends that rhyme fails to convey profound thoughts naturally and lacks the elegance required for simple expressions.
• Rhetorical Questions: To emphasise his point, Crites poses rhetorical questions, such as, "What is more unbefitting the majesty of poetry than to call a servant or ask for a door to be shut in rhyme?" This highlights the incongruity of using rhyme for mundane requests.

Neander's Reaction to Criticism of Rhyme

Nature's Dramatic Roots

Neander responds to the criticism of rhyme by acknowledging that it is unfair to call a 'stanza so dull.' He believes that a 'regular' rhymed refrain can be equally effective for both emotional and non-emotional poetry. The true test of rhyme's 'effortlessness' lies in the quality of the rhymes chosen.

Neander questions whether the emotions of the refrains limit the rhymes or if the rhymes enhance and support the emotions in the stanzas.

Dryden's Impact on Drama

Dryden aimed to analyze and critique different forms of Drama, which play a crucial role in English Criticism.

• Strict Nature: Dryden is known for his strict approach to Drama.
• Sensational Artistry: He views sensational artistry as a form of imitation designed to entertain and educate the audience.
• Depiction of Human Nature: Dryden's work is regarded as a honest and vivid portrayal of human nature, highlighting its interests and emotions for the enjoyment and guidance of humanity.

Memorable Quotes from Dryden

• 'He who would search for pearls must dive below.'
• 'We first make our habits, then our habits make us.'
• 'Great wits are sure to madness near allied, and thin partitions do their bounds divide.'

Introduction to William Wordsworth

William Wordsworth was a key figure in English Romanticism and one of its most important thinkers. He writes about childhood, the role of children, and the beauty of nature. Wordsworth believes that poetry should be in simple and rural language, easily understood by ordinary people.

Early Life

• Born on 7 April 1770 in Cockermouth, Cumberland, in the Lake District, to John and Ann Cookson Wordsworth.
• This region would become closely associated with him for over two centuries after his death.

Education and Early Influences

• Started writing poetry as a young boy in grammar school.
• Travelled to Europe before finishing school, which deepened his love for nature and compassion for simple village folk, themes that are important in his poetry.

Major Works

• Lyrical Ballads: Co-written with Samuel Taylor Coleridge.
• The Prelude: A Romantic epic detailing the chronological development of a poet’s mind.

William’s Education and Early Influences

Wordsworth Connection

William Wordsworth received his education at the grammar school near Cockermouth Church and at Ann Birkett’s school in Penrith, where his maternal grandparents resided. It was during this time, along with Mary Hutchinson, that the strong and enduring bond between William and his sister Dorothy was likely formed. Wordsworth’s childhood experiences by the Derwent River and his education at Cockermouth are vividly captured in various parts of The Prelude and his shorter poems.

Move to Alfoxden House

In 1797, the Wordsworth family relocated to Alfoxden House, near Nether Stowey, to be closer to Coleridge. Their constant wandering in the countryside led locals to suspect them of being French spies, prompting the government to send an agent to monitor their activities.

Collaboration with Coleridge

The period from 1797 to 1800 was marked by a close partnership between Wordsworth and Coleridge, signifying the beginning of Wordsworth’s serious poetic journey. In 1798, they published the Preface to Lyrical Ballads, heralding the start of the Romantic era in English literature and representing a pivotal moment in the evolution of Romantic writing.

Evolution of Political and Moral Ideas

• In 1798, Wordsworth was also engaged in drafting a work that reflected his evolving perspectives on justice and morality.
• Although later editors titled it the Paper on Morals, the piece remained unfinished.
• Wordsworth appeared to be attempting to articulate and rationalize his shifting political and social views, which were naturally developing alongside his poetic journey.
• The poet’s voice in Wordsworth was beginning to dominate over the leftist influences that had initially shaped his political philosophy, which was rooted in power, violence, and a disregard for moral principles.

Wordsworth’s Theory of Poetic Diction

Rustic simplicity

Wordsworth was against the grand language and style used by 18th-century poets like Dryden. He believed that poetry should use simple words that ordinary people can easily understand. Wordsworth thought that those who sought respect in society often critiqued the artificiality in the poetry of his time, rather than lacking love for humanity or reverence for God. He refused to write for a corrupt society or use its language. Instead, he aimed to create poetry that reflects both rural life and the purity of childhood innocence.

Key Ideas of Wordsworth’s Theory

• The language of poetry should be the real language of people, without any artificial elements.
• By "men," Wordsworth meant the rustic folk and humble individuals.
• He believed poetry's language should be free from coarseness or peculiarities.
• It should express the feelings of people in a state of vivid sensation, meaning the language of poetry is closely related to that of everyday speech.
• Wordsworth likely referred to vocabulary when he mentioned 'language,' rather than grammar or structure.
• In the Preface to Lyrical Ballads, he described the poems as an experiment.
• His goal was to discover how well the language used by the working class could work in poetry.
• He intended to explore events and situations from common and rustic life.

The Characters in Wordsworth's Poem

Rustic Poetry

Wordsworth's poem features characters from humble backgrounds and rural life, which greatly influences his choice of language.

• Simplicity and Naturalness: Wordsworth believes that the language of poetry should be simple and reflect the speech of ordinary people. For him, this is the essence of poetry.
• Suitability: The language used must be appropriate for the situations and feelings being conveyed in the poem.
• Avoiding Artificiality: Wordsworth emphasizes the importance of avoiding artificial language, whether he is speaking in his own voice or through his characters.
• Metre vs. Poetic Style: Wordsworth clarifies that metre should not be confused with poetic style. He believes that metre follows specific rules, while beautiful expression is natural and spontaneous.
• Reasons for Metre: Wordsworth provides several reasons to support the use of metre in poetry.

Coleridge's Perspective on Language

Coleridge adds to the discussion by arguing against the idea that the best parts of our language come solely from Nature. He believes that language is shaped by human thought and intellectual activities.

• Language as 'Matter Shaped': Coleridge suggests that language is shaped by human intellect and the evolution of new thoughts and ideas.
• Limitations of Rustic Language: He points out that the language of rustics is limited and cannot convey abstract concepts. In fact, relying solely on rustic language would hinder progress.
• Intellectual Progression: As humans evolve, they develop new thoughts and ideas that enrich language. However, these concepts require a more sophisticated language for expression.
• The Empty Nature of Rustic Language: Coleridge notes that the language of rustics is lacking in depth and variety, making it inadequate for conveying complex ideas.

Definition of a Poet

A poet is someone who communicates with people through poetry, possessing heightened sensitivity, energy, and delicacy. A poet has a deeper understanding of human nature and a broader perspective than what is typically expected from individuals.

A poet finds contentment in their own interests and experiences, discovering joy in the essence of life within themselves.

Additionally, a poet is inclined to recognize similar interests expressed in poetry and feels motivated to create them when they are absent.

Introduction

Nature's Verses

The poet believes that he is the protector of human emotions, carrying with him his bonds and affection wherever he goes. He envisions a world where all compassionate beings join him in a song, reflecting the shared interests and feelings of humanity. The beauty of human concerns lies in the poet's ability to think and feel, connecting deeply with the conscious society around him. He is driven by a desire to find environments rich in emotion where he can express himself freely. For the poet, poetry is the ultimate source of understanding, timeless and as fundamental as the human heart.

How Coleridge Criticised Wordsworth's Theory of Poetic Diction?

• Coleridge disagrees with Wordsworth's view that prose and poetry are fundamentally the same.
• He argues for a clear distinction between the languages used in prose and poetry.
• Coleridge believes that a provincial person's limited experience hinders their ability to think deeply and engage with realities as a well-informed individual would.

• In his critique of Wordsworth's theory, Coleridge suggests that the language of a rural person, even when refined, will not differ significantly from that of any sensible individual.
• He emphasizes that poetry is crafted through the skillful use of signs and images derived from human creativity and reflection, which an uninformed person lacks.

Coleridge's Critique of Wordsworth's 'Theory of Poetic Diction'

Nature's Poetic Depth

• Coleridge questions the ambiguous use of the term 'genuine' in Wordsworth's theory.
• Wordsworth claims that the language of poetry reflects the genuine language of the people.
• Coleridge counters that individual language varies according to personal insights, mental capabilities, and the intensity and speed of emotions.
• He emphasizes that Wordsworth's poetic language differs significantly from that of an average laborer.
• Coleridge also differentiates between the languages of prose and poetry, asserting a fundamental contrast between them.
• He contends that the language of poetry is not the same as everyday speech or prose.
• This distinction comes from poetry's use of metre and its need for a specific arrangement of words.
• Coleridge argues that metre is an essential aspect of poetry, not just an ornamental feature.
• Therefore, there must be a basic difference between the language used in writing and that used in poetry.

Notable Quotations

• "Nature never betrayed the heart that loved her."
• "Poetry is the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings; it takes its origin from emotions recollected in tranquility."
• "The best portion of a good man's life is his little, nameless, unremembered acts of kindness and of love."
• "Faith is a passionate intuition."