Literary Criticism - 3 Chapter Notes | Crash Course for UGC NET English Literature PDF Download

Features of the Sublime

Majestic Passion

Longinus identifies the features of the sublime based on his theory, which are as follows:

1. Grand Conceptions (Grandeur of thought)

• The writer must possess strong thinking skills.
• According to Longinus, great thoughts or ideas inspire great souls.
• A genuinely sublime work should be free from low and dishonourable thoughts.
• Individuals with malicious and servile thoughts cannot achieve sublimity in their works.

2. Strong Passion and Persuasive Emotions

• The writer needs to convey passionate thoughts and strong feelings.
• High conceptions must be present in the work.
• Longinus believes that powerful and passionate thoughts from the writer create sublimity.
• Proper construction of figures of speech is essential.

3. Noble Diction

• Diction is vital for making a work extraordinary.
• This involves the choice and arrangement of words.
• The style and imagery should captivate the audience.
• The language must clearly convey the writer's ideas to the readers.

4. Dignified and Elevated Composition

• The source of the sublime is an exalted style of diction.
• The composition should be rhythmic and melodious to engage the audience.
• This type of composition appeals to the soul.
• It allows the reader to connect with the author's sentiments.

5. Amplification

Sublime Imitation

• Amplification is a speaking technique that involves using numerous words to add depth and intensity to the message. This approach enhances the attractiveness and power of the style, making it more engaging for the audience.

6. Imitation

• Imitation is the act of replicating the work of great thinkers and writers to foster creativity. By emulating the standards set by wise individuals from the past, one can achieve greatness. Longinus suggests that writers assess their work in comparison to Plato and Aristotle.
• By reaching their level of excellence and then imitating them, writers can enhance their own work.
• “For that is really great which bears a repeated examination which is difficult or rather impossible to withstand…from a concert of discordant elements it makes our faith in the object of admiration strong and unassailable.”
• “Sublimity is the echo of the great mind.”
• “Genius requires restraint as much as it requires motivation.”
• “The images make for confusion rather than forcefulness. Examine in the light of day and it gradually sinks from the terrible to the ridiculous.”

Samuel Taylor Coleridge

• Samuel Taylor Coleridge (21 October – 25 July 1834) was an English poet, critic, philosopher, and theologian.
• He, along with William Wordsworth, was a key figure in the Romantic Movement in England.
• Coleridge was part of the group known as the ‘Lake Poets’.
• He collaborated with Charles Lamb, Robert Southey, and Charles Lloyd.
• Coleridge wrote the poems ‘The Rime of the Ancient Mariner’ and ‘Kubla Khan’, and authored an autobiography called Biographia Literaria.
• His work on William Shakespeare was particularly powerful, introducing German philosophical ideas to the English-speaking world.
• He coined the phrase ‘suspension of disbelief’ and is noted for incorporating Transcendentalism into his writings.

His Kinship with William Wordsworth

Romantic Imagination

• William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge were close friends and their relationship was pivotal in the creation of the famous literary work, Lyrical Ballads in 1798.
• The critic Walter Pater referred to the period from 1797 to 1798 as ‘ Annus Mirabilis ’, meaning the wonderful years of Coleridge’s poetry.
• During this time, Coleridge produced some of his best work.

In 1798

• Coleridge traveled to Germany to study transcendentalism, which he later integrated into his writings, such as Kubla Khan.
• After returning to England in 1799, he ventured into journalism and lecturing.
• He characterized himself as an ‘ indolent genius ’ with the capacity for great energy, highlighting his exceptional talent coupled with a lack of willpower.
• Opium played a significant role in his life, and it was under its influence that he penned Kubla Khan.

Why Was Coleridge a Prominent Figure in Literary Theory and Imagination?

• In addition to his hands-on criticism, Coleridge emerged as an important figure in literary theory and analysis during the Romantic era.
• He navigated his own intellectual journey, confronted profound personal struggles, and absorbed the principles of German philosophical ethics.
• As a theorist, he meticulously documented his thoughts, lectures, and published works, with notable contributions in Biographia Literaria and studies on Shakespeare.
• His writings delved into the nature of the mind, imagination, the selection of words, and their influence on creativity.
• The Romantic era in English literature placed a premium on nature, imagination, and fancy, standing in contrast to the earlier Augustan age, which prioritized reason and logic.

The Origination of the Imagination of the Romantic Critics

Critique of Romanticism

Creative Reflection

Critics of Romanticism perceived the creative mind as a blend of thoughts that enable the poet to perceive profound connections, such as the relationship between truth and beauty. Wordsworth often described poetry as "the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings recollected in tranquillity." Coleridge proposed that "tranquillity" could be substituted with "absenting." Wordsworth also emphasized that poets possess a unique talent, a divine gift, allowing them to observe things that were previously unseen.

Imagination vs Fancy

Biographia Literaria, published in 1817, is a contemplative autobiography that delves into various subjects, including memoir, philosophy, and religion, drawing inspiration from German philosophers like Kant and Schelling. In this work, Coleridge differentiates between imagination and fancy, portraying the creative mind as a formative and transformative force, while fancy is seen as a more collective and composite ability.

For instance, Coleridge argues that Milton possessed a highly imaginative mind, whereas Cowley exhibited a more fanciful one.

Coleridge's Perspective on Imagination and Fancy

Coleridge further elucidates the difference between fancy and imagination by comparing it to a mechanical mixture versus a chemical one. He associates imagination with creativity and the capacity to shape and unify elements, whereas fancy, which is dependent on and inferior to imagination, is merely associative. Both fancy and imagination are regarded as intricate abilities, rather than just different names for the same concept or varying degrees of the same power.

Coleridge's Idea of Fancy

Artistic Dreams

Coleridge's use of the term "Fancy" draws on the 18th-century perspective of imagination, which was primarily viewed as a mechanical process governed by the laws of association.

Primary and Secondary Imagination: Their Functions

• Primary Imagination : This is the fundamental capacity that enables us to recognize, differentiate, and impose order on chaos. It mirrors the perpetual act of creation, represented by the infinite "I AM". Primary imagination empowers us to perceive objects both in their individual parts and as cohesive wholes.
• Secondary Imagination : This aspect is vital for all poetic endeavors.

Distinction Between Imagination and Fancy

• In chapter thirteen of Biographia Literaria, Coleridge differentiates between imagination and fancy.
• Imagination : This is the creative force that not only shapes an existing world but also fabricates a new one.
• Fancy : This involves the imaginative application of logical principles. Poets use devices such as metaphors and alliterations to blend various elements into aesthetically pleasing images.

"Until you understand a writer's ignorance, assume you are ignorant of his understanding."

"The reader should be engaged not merely by a mechanical urge for curiosity or a restless desire for a quick resolution but by the enjoyable mental activity sparked by the appeal of the journey itself."

Introduction

Elizabethan Elegance

• "An Apology for Poetry" by Sir Philip Sidney is a significant work in English literary criticism, where he defends and analyzes the nature and role of poetry and drama.
• Sidney aims to restore the honour of poetry in the arts through his clear expressions of various aspects related to it.

The Defence of Poetry

• Sidney defends poetry against critics who label it as "false," emphasizing its capacity to convey universal truths.
• He argues that poetry, through its imaginative and artistic expression, can reveal deeper realities that may be overlooked in mere factual accounts.
• Sidney believes that poetry has the power to inspire and elevate the human spirit, making it a noble and essential form of artistic expression.

The Role of the Poet

• Sidney explores the role of the poet as a creator of images and emotions, capable of influencing the thoughts and feelings of the audience.
• He suggests that poets have a unique ability to shape perceptions and evoke responses through their imaginative narratives.
• The poet's role, according to Sidney, is not merely to entertain but to provoke reflection and inspire positive change in society.

Poetry as a Moral Guide

• Sidney argues that poetry serves as a moral guide by presenting examples of virtuous behaviour and the consequences of vice.
• He believes that through the portrayal of characters and their actions, poetry can instil ethical values and encourage virtuous living.
• This aspect of poetry, Sidney contends, contributes to its importance in shaping societal norms and individual conduct.

The Aesthetic Value of Poetry

• Sidney acknowledges the aesthetic value of poetry, highlighting its capacity to provide pleasure through beauty and artistry.
• He argues that the harmonious blend of language, rhythm, and imagery in poetry creates a pleasurable experience for the audience.
• This aesthetic appeal, Sidney suggests, enhances the overall impact of the poetic message and contributes to its enduring appeal.

Poetry and Truth

• Sidney addresses the relationship between poetry and truth, arguing that poetic truths, though imaginative, can resonate with deeper realities.
• He contends that the emotional and moral truths conveyed through poetry can be as significant as factual accuracy.
• This perspective underscores the idea that poetry transcends mere representation to capture essential human experiences and truths.

Conclusion

• "An Apology for Poetry" reflects Sidney's profound understanding of the artistic and moral dimensions of poetry.
• Through his defence, he elevates the status of poetry and its practitioners, advocating for its recognition as a vital and noble art form.
• Sidney's insights continue to resonate in contemporary discussions on the role and significance of poetry in society.

Poetry in the 16th Century and Its Defence

Renaissance Reflection

In the 16th century, there was a surge of writing, especially in the form of lyrics and poems, which created a demand for a proper theory of poetry. However, the Puritans opposed poetry, seeing it as something based on imagination and pleasure. Stephen Gosson strongly criticized poetry through various articles and pamphlets. In response to this criticism, Sir Philip Sidney wrote An Apology for Poetry to defend the art form.

Gosson's Criticism

• Stephen Gosson, an English satirist, described poets as ‘pipers or jesters’ and labeled poetry as the ‘enemy of good virtue.’
• He claimed that drama corrupted morals by blurring the lines between male and female roles, which he deemed unnatural.

Sidney’s Response

• Sidney's work received praise from many prominent writers of his time.
• He effectively defended poetry, drawing on his background as a writer, scholar, and his knowledge of classical literature.

Defending Poetry

• Sidney starts by emphasizing the importance and universality of poetry.
• He points out that even the earliest Greek philosophers and historians were essentially poets.
• He addresses a key issue of his time by arguing that ‘versing and rhyming don’t make a poet.’

Philosophical Views

• Initially, Sidney agrees with Plato that poetry is a ‘divine blessing’ that comes from inspiration.
• He recognizes the role of divine influence in the creative process.
• However, he leans more towards Aristotle's view, stating, ‘verse is a craft of impersonation.’
• Significantly, he reveals that ‘one might be a poet without versing.’

Sidney's View on Poetry

Creative Virtue

Sidney discusses Aristotle's idea that poetry involves invention rather than imitation. Poets don't just copy reality; they reshape it into something entirely new. However, their work is grounded in real life, which gives poetry its universal significance. Sidney believes this makes poetry the highest form of art. He sees poets as almost divine figures who create idealized versions of the world.

Gosson's Criticisms of Poetry

Sidney outlines four main criticisms by Gosson against poetry:

1. Poetry is a waste of time.
2. Poetry promotes falsehoods.
3. Poetry is immoral and encourages bad behavior.
4. Plato was right to exclude poets from his ideal society in Plato's Republic.

In response to Gosson's first criticism, Sidney argues that poetry is one of the most valuable uses of time. He believes that no learning is more beneficial than that which teaches and inspires virtue, and poets are the best at portraying ideals.

Addressing the second criticism, Sidney defends poets against the accusation of being liars by stating that poets are the least dishonest among writers. They create from imagination or emotion, which cannot be considered a lie. He points out that other fields, like astronomy, geometry, and history, can involve false statements, while poets do not claim their work as truth; instead, they express what ought to be or shouldn't be.

The Subject of Truth or Misrepresentation

Artistic Idealism

The concept of truth versus misrepresentation emerges when one is in pursuit of reality. The poet does not provide certainty but rather presents fiction, embodying the ideal version of reality.

Misuse of Verse

• The third criticism of verse is its potential for misuse, as it is said to “contaminate us with numerous pestilent desires of wits.”
• This concern may be directed at a particular artist rather than verse itself.
• Sidney contends that verse does not corrupt the mind; rather, it is the mind that misuses verse.
• All forms of expression and knowledge can be misused, but this does not diminish their value when used appropriately.
• Sidney believes that the problem of poetry’s misuse lies not in poetry itself but in the poet.

Plato’s View on Poets

• Plato’s fourth criticism of poets in his ideal republic is not accurate, as he intended to expel the amoral poets of his time, not poetry in its entirety.
• Plato regarded poetry as supernaturally inspired.
• In ‘Ion’, he offers high divine praise to poetry.
• His portrayal of the poet as “a light-winged and scared thing” reflects his positive perspective on poetry.
• Sidney concludes that Plato was condemning the misuse of poetry, not poetry itself, honoring it as a patron rather than an opponent.

Critique of Poetry

• Sidney observes that many poems consist of borrowed and excessively intricate phrases, loosely linked and devoid of authentic strength and emotion.
• He alludes to the servile imitation of the Plutarch tradition.
• Interestingly, Sidney himself was not exempt from this.
• These poems are perceived as mere artistic exercises, lacking genuine feeling except for fanciful and unrealistic opinions.
• His critique of weakness in poetry underscores a significant concern.

Quotes by the Poet

Celestial Harmony

• "I will either find a way or create one."
• "I believe that music has the most divine impact on my senses."
• "A poet does not assert anything, and therefore cannot lie."
• "I have now learned to love properly, and have learned it this way."
• "Stella is the only star that lights up my life, the light of my life, and the object of my desire."