Electing a President Chapter Notes | AP U.S Government and Politics - Grade 12 PDF Download

Introduction

The journey to electing a U.S. president involves multiple stages, institutions, and mechanisms. From primaries to the general election, this process reflects the interplay between state and national authority, embodying the principles of federalism and representative democracy.

The Road to the White House

Presidential candidates begin preparing years in advance, focusing on gaining visibility, visiting key early-voting states, raising funds, and conducting polls to gauge public support. This preliminary phase, often referred to as the invisible primary, sees candidates vying for media coverage and donor backing before formal voting begins.

Note: Swing states, also known as battleground states, are regions without consistent party loyalty. Their electoral votes are highly contested, prompting candidates to allocate significant time and resources to secure them.

Incumbency Advantage

Presidents seeking re-election benefit from several inherent advantages:

• Established name recognition from prior media exposure and service.
• Access to the bully pulpit, enabling direct communication with the public.
• An existing network of donors, volunteers, and advisors.
• A track record of policies to promote or defend.

Data shows incumbents are more likely to win re-election, with only 10 of 45 U.S. presidents losing their bids for a second term.

Primaries and Caucuses

To secure their party’s nomination, candidates compete in state-level contests that allocate delegates who vote at national conventions. States use either primaries or caucuses to select these delegates.

Open and Closed Primaries

In recent years, states like California and Washington have implemented top-two primaries, where all voters choose from a single ballot, and the two candidates with the most votes advance to the general election, regardless of party.

Caucuses

• Caucuses are local gatherings where party members discuss and vote for their preferred candidates. 
• These events, being time-consuming and public, attract fewer participants than primaries. 
• Lowa’s caucus, the first in the nation, serves as an early indicator of candidate strength.

Note: Strong performances in early contests like Iowa and New Hampshire generate momentum, attracting increased media coverage, donations, and endorsements.

Party Conventions

Following primaries and caucuses, delegates convene at national party conventions to formally select their party’s nominee.

• Some states use winner-take-all delegate allocation, while others distribute delegates proportionally based on vote share.
• The Democratic Party employs superdelegates, who are party leaders unbound by primary or caucus results and free to support any candidate at the convention.
• Conventions also unify the party, finalize policy platforms, and announce vice presidential candidates.

General Election Phase

After conventions, the general election phase begins, encompassing several key activities:

• Campaigning: Candidates travel nationwide, focusing on swing states, and hold rallies, town halls, and media events to appeal to undecided voters.
• Advertising: Campaigns and political action committees (PACs) deploy television, radio, and digital advertisements to promote their candidate and critique opponents. Ads are tailored to target specific demographics and battleground regions.
• Fundraising: Raising funds is critical for campaign operations, including staffing, travel, polling, and advertising. Contributions come from individuals, PACs, and online donors. Candidates with robust early fundraising tend to maintain stronger campaigns.
• Voter Outreach: Campaigns invest heavily in phone banking, door-to-door canvassing, text messaging, and mail campaigns to boost voter turnout. Get-out-the-vote (GOTV) initiatives focus on ensuring supporters cast their ballots.
• Presidential Debates: Candidates engage in nationally televised debates, providing voters a direct comparison. Debates can shift campaign momentum, particularly if a candidate delivers a memorable performance or makes a notable error.

The Electoral College

• The U.S. does not use a national popular vote to elect its president. Instead, it employs the Electoral College, established in Article II of the Constitution.
• Each state is allocated electors equal to its total congressional representation (senators plus representatives). With 538 total electoral votes, a candidate needs 270 to win the presidency.
  

Note: Most states use a winner-take-all system, where the candidate winning the state’s popular vote receives all its electoral votes.

Controversy and Debate

A primary criticism of the Electoral College is that it can produce outcomes misaligned with the national popular vote, as seen in:

• 2000 (Bush v. Gore)
• 2016, when Donald Trump won the Electoral College but lost the popular vote to Hillary Clinton

Critics argue the system disproportionately empowers smaller states and swing states, while supporters contend it upholds federalism and ensures rural areas maintain influence.

Eliminating the Electoral College would require a constitutional amendment, a challenging process due to the system’s benefits for certain states and parties.

Key Terms

• Advertising: Advertising involves promoting candidates, policies, or causes through various media to shape public opinion and behavior. In presidential elections, it is vital for building candidate profiles, influencing voters, and mobilizing support through targeted, emotionally resonant messaging.
• Bully Pulpit: The bully pulpit refers to the president’s unique platform to advocate for their agenda and influence public opinion. It allows direct communication with citizens, leveraging media to rally support for policies during governance and campaigns.
• Campaigning: Campaigning encompasses organized efforts by candidates and supporters to persuade voters and win elections. It involves advertising, public appearances, and grassroots mobilization to promote policies and build a strong voter base.
• Caucus System: The caucus system is a process where party members gather locally to discuss and vote for presidential candidates. This grassroots method, contrasting with primaries, reflects party activists’ preferences and shapes the nomination process.
• Closed and Open Primaries: Closed primaries restrict voting to registered party members, ensuring candidates align with party values. Open primaries allow all registered voters to participate, fostering a broader candidate pool and reflecting diverse voter preferences.
• Debates: Debates are structured discussions where candidates present arguments, allowing voters to compare perspectives. They shape public opinion, inform voters, and influence policy discussions by providing a platform for scrutiny.
• Donald Trump: Donald Trump, the 45th U.S. president (2017–2021), reshaped political norms with a populist approach and polarizing governance. His use of social media and strong supporter base marked a significant shift in electoral dynamics.
• Electoral College: The Electoral College, established by the U.S. Constitution, elects the president and vice president through 538 state electors. It balances populous and less populous states, reflecting the federal structure of governance.
• Fundraising: Fundraising involves collecting resources to support political campaigns. In presidential elections, it funds advertising, outreach, and operations, significantly impacting a candidate’s competitiveness and electoral success.
• General Election: The general election is a nationwide event where voters select representatives, including the president and Congress. It determines officeholders, reflecting voter will and influencing government policy direction.
• Hillary Clinton: Hillary Clinton, a prominent politician and 2016 Democratic presidential nominee, was the first woman nominated by a major party. Her candidacy highlighted the evolving role of women in U.S. politics.
• Incumbency Advantage: Incumbency advantage refers to the benefits current officeholders have in elections, including name recognition, donor networks, and media access. It significantly enhances re-election chances in presidential and congressional races.
• Invisible Primary: The invisible primary is the pre-primary phase where candidates raise funds, build support, and gain media attention. It shapes candidate viability and voter perceptions before formal voting begins.
• Iowa Caucus: The Iowa Caucus, the first major contest in the presidential primary season, involves party members voting for candidates. It provides early momentum and shapes the national political landscape.
• New Hampshire Primary: The New Hampshire Primary, the first primary in the presidential nomination process, sets the tone for subsequent contests. It influences candidate momentum, media coverage, and public perception.
• Path to the Presidency: The path to the presidency includes primaries, caucuses, conventions, and the general election. Candidates navigate strategic campaigning and coalition-building to secure party nominations and electoral votes.
• Party Conventions: Party conventions are large gatherings where parties nominate presidential candidates and establish platforms. They unify supporters, outline policies, and rally behind nominees for the upcoming election.
• Pledged Delegates: Pledged delegates are chosen during primaries and caucuses to support specific candidates at national conventions. Their votes, based on state-level results, are critical to securing party nominations.
• Primaries & Caucuses: Primaries and caucuses are methods for selecting party candidates. Primaries use secret ballots, while caucuses involve open discussions, shaping nominations and the general election landscape.
• Superdelegates: Superdelegates are Democratic Party leaders who can support any candidate at the national convention, unbound by primary results. They wield significant influence in close nomination races.
• Swing State: A swing state, or battleground state, has balanced support for both major parties, making it a key target in elections. These states often determine presidential outcomes due to their competitive nature.
• Top-Two Primary System: The top-two primary system places all candidates on a single ballot, with the top two advancing to the general election. It promotes competition and diverse candidate options.
• Voter Outreach: Voter outreach involves strategies to engage and mobilize voters, such as canvassing and messaging. It boosts turnout and ensures diverse populations are informed during election cycles.
• Winner-Take-All System: The winner-take-all system awards all of a state’s electoral votes to the candidate with the most popular votes. Used in most states, it shapes campaign strategies and third-party viability.