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All questions of Developing Psychological Skills for Humanities/Arts Exam

Which of the following are likely to make us find a situation stressful?
  1. Having knowledge and experience of the job.
  2. Poor relationships at work.
  3. Reduced autonomy over work.
  4. Neurotic temperament.
  • a)
    1 & 2 
  • b)
    1, 2 & 3 
  • c)
    2, 3 & 4 
  • d)
    1 & 4
Correct answer is option 'C'. Can you explain this answer?

Rajesh Gupta answered
Some of the most relevant factors governing how we react to potentially stressful situations are:
  • Knowledge – People who have considerable job knowledge and experience are more likely to be able to cope with stressful situations. This is because they are less likely to experience quantitative or qualitative work overload, and they are likely to have more control over a situation than someone with little experience or knowledge (see below).
  • Social support – While poor relationships at work can be a major source of stress, social support from colleagues and supervisors can buffer the impact of stress, mitigating the negative effects (e.g. Cummins, 1990; Manning, Jackson & Fusilier, 1996). Social support may also come from outside the job, from family and from friends.
  • Control – There is a widely held misperception that managers have more stressful jobs than others. While they do tend to have heavy workloads, deadlines, responsibility for complex decisions, and many relationships to manage, stress-related diseases are much less common in managers than in blue-collar workers (Fletcher, 1988; Karasek & Theorell, 1990). One important reason for this appears to be that managers have greater control (autonomy) over their work. Karasek (1979) showed that the most damaging jobs have a combination of high demands (volume and pace of work) with low control.
  • Personality characteristics – Neurotic people are more likely to see stimuli as threatening than are hardy characters. Hardiness encompasses three personality traits:(i) commitment, (ii) an internal locus of control (believing that you have control over your own life), and (iii) a sense of welcoming challenge (Maddi & Kobasa, 1984. Those who are high in hardiness tend to view events as less stressful than do others, and they are less likely to be overwhelmed by challenging situations.
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Hackman and Oldham (1976) identified which qualities to be most important for job satisfaction?
  • a)
    Having a variety of tasks to perform
  • b)
    Feedback about job performance
  • c)
    Type of leadership
  • d)
    (a) and (b)
  • e)
    (a), (b) and (c)
Correct answer is option 'D'. Can you explain this answer?

Lakshmi Kulkarni answered
Factors important for job satisfaction according to Hackman and Oldham (1976)

Having a variety of tasks to perform
One of the key factors identified by Hackman and Oldham to be important for job satisfaction is having a variety of tasks to perform. This helps in keeping employees engaged and interested in their work, preventing monotony and boredom.

Feedback about job performance
Another crucial factor identified by Hackman and Oldham is receiving feedback about job performance. Feedback helps employees understand how well they are performing, areas for improvement, and recognition for their efforts, leading to increased job satisfaction.

Combination of factors
According to Hackman and Oldham's research, the combination of having a variety of tasks to perform and receiving feedback about job performance leads to higher levels of job satisfaction. Employees who have diverse tasks and receive feedback are more likely to feel motivated, engaged, and satisfied with their jobs.
Therefore, the correct answer to the question would be option 'D', as both having a variety of tasks to perform and feedback about job performance are identified as important factors for job satisfaction by Hackman and Oldham.

 The process by which members of a society are taught how to behave and feel by influential members of that society is referred to as ________________. 
  • a)
    Role ambiguity 
  • b)
    Socialization 
  • c)
    Hawthorne effect 
  • d)
    Social roles 
  • e)
    Normative influence
Correct answer is option 'B'. Can you explain this answer?

Divya Mishra answered
Understanding Socialization
Socialization is a fundamental process in which individuals learn and internalize the norms, values, and behaviors that are considered appropriate in their society. This process is essential for the functioning of any social group and plays a crucial role in shaping identities.
Key Aspects of Socialization:
- Definition: Socialization refers to the lifelong process through which individuals acquire the skills, knowledge, and cultural norms necessary to participate in their society.
- Influential Agents: The process is facilitated by various agents, including family, peers, educational institutions, and media. These agents serve as models for behavior and influence individual attitudes and beliefs.
- Stages of Socialization: Socialization occurs in several stages throughout a person's life, beginning in early childhood and continuing into adulthood. Each stage presents unique challenges and learning opportunities.
- Impact on Behavior: Through socialization, individuals learn how to behave in socially acceptable ways. This includes understanding social roles, norms, and expectations that govern interactions.
- Importance in Society: Socialization is vital for maintaining social order and cohesion. It helps individuals develop a sense of belonging and identity within their community.
Conclusion
In summary, socialization is the process that teaches individuals how to behave and feel within their society. It is through this process that cultural continuity is maintained, and individuals learn to navigate the complexities of social life. Understanding socialization is key to comprehending how societies function and evolve over time.

Which of the following characteristics are contributors to job satisfaction, as identified in Hackman and Oldham’s (1976) influential job characteristics theory?
  1. Variety.
  2. Recognition.
  3. Task identity.
  4. Task difficulty.
  • a)
    1, 2 & 3 
  • b)
    1 & 2 
  • c)
    2 & 3 
  • d)
    3 & 4
Correct answer is option 'A'. Can you explain this answer?

Rajesh Gupta answered
Hackman and Oldham’s (1976) five contributors to job satisfaction are:
  • task identity – the extent to which the job represents a whole piece of work (e.g. running a restaurant compared with just washing the dishes);
  • task significance – how important the task is for society in general, and for the goals of the organization;
  • autonomy – the amount of freedom the person has to decide on how best to do their job;
  • feedback – receiving information about job performance (imagine writing essays and never receiving feedback on how well they were written); and
  • variety – varied tasks are important (compare the work of an organizational psychologist with that of a supermarket check-out worker), but too much variety can create conflicting and therefore stressful demands.

Which one of these statements about training is FALSE? 
  • a)
    There was very little change in work environments over the last quarter of the twentieth century. 
  • b)
    Most people at work need continual training to update their skills. 
  • c)
    The approach to training in many organizations is often reactive. 
  • d)
    Psychologists have much to offer organizations in making training effective.
Correct answer is option 'A'. Can you explain this answer?

Rajesh Gupta answered
Training is a learning process structured in a systematic fashion and designed to raise the performance level of an employee (Goldstein, 1991; Tannenbaum & Yukl, 1992). With the marked change in work environments over the last quarter of the twentieth century has come an urgent need to develop and maintain staff skills through continuous training. Furthermore, with the expanded use of new technology (and information technology in particular) most people at work need continual training to update their skills (Ashton & Felstead, 1995; Pfeffer, 1998; Tharenou & Burke, 2002). Yet the approach to training in many organizations is often haphazard and reactive. Psychologists have much to offer organizations in relation to how training can best be used to achieve a fit between the individual and his job.

People’s temple cult leader, Reverend Jim Jones, persuaded his followers to feed a poison-laced drink to their children and then drink it themselves, and nearly 1,000 people died. This is an example of the negative influence of _______________. 
  • a)
    Social roles 
  • b)
    Transactional leadership 
  • c)
    Transformational leadership 
  • d)
    Hawthorne effect 
  • e)
    Formalization
Correct answer is option 'C'. Can you explain this answer?

Arun Yadav answered
This is a real-world example of the negative influence of transformational leadership by which a dominant and self-confident leader can influence the behaviour of subordinates with clear communication, strong commitment to own goals and high expectations of subordinates.
Transactional leadership refers to relationships with followers based on exchanges or bargains. Social roles describe normative attitudes and behaviours expected of people who belong to particular groups. The Hawthorne effect refers to the improved performance of workers based on the attention and interest given to them regarding their work. Formalization refers to written rules and regulations governing activities within an organization.

According to French and Raven’s (1959) five sources of power, which of the following combinations of types and sources of power are correct? 
  • a)
    Legitimate power is wielded by someone whose persuasiveness, popularity or charisma lead others to accede to his/her wishes or suggestions. 
  • b)
    Expert power results from access to knowledge and information, so the computer wizard often gains considerable power in an organization. 
  • c)
    Reward power is the power to force others into action or inaction by the threat of punishment, such as delaying the payment of expenses claims. 
  • d)
    Referent power comes from position in the hierarchy and is imposed by authority.
Correct answer is option 'B'. Can you explain this answer?

Rajesh Gupta answered
Power, according to French and Raven (1959), derives from the following five sources:
  • • Legitimate power comes from position in the hierarchy and is imposed by authority.
  • • Expert power results from access to knowledge and information, so the computer wizard often gains considerable power in an organization.
  • • Reward power is illustrated by the person who allocates offices, parking spaces, pay rises, equipment or stationery – such people may have considerable power without being in a senior position in the hierarchy.
  • • Coercive power is the power to force others into action or inaction by the threat of punishment, such as delaying the payment of expenses claims.
  • • Referent power is wielded by someone whose persuasiveness, popularity or charisma lead others to accede to his/her wishes or suggestions.

Of these assertions about leadership styles, one is correct. Which one is it? 
  • a)
    Organizational psychologists have recently changed their focus on leadership from personality to environmental factors and back to personality again. 
  • b)
    Charismatic leadership and transformational leadership are opposing leadership styles. 
  • c)
    Charismatic leaders exercise intense influence over others and have high expectations of their followers’ performance, but usually communicate their goals and visions in a confused way. 
  • d)
    Some studies suggest that transformational leaders inspire dissatisfaction amongst their employees, resulting in lower productivity.
Correct answer is option 'A'. Can you explain this answer?

Arun Yadav answered
Organizational psychologists have struggled with the concept of leadership since the mid-twentieth century, changing their focus from personality (‘leaders are born, not made’) to environmental factors (‘circumstances determine who emerges as the leader’) and back to personality again (Bass, 1990; Fiedler, 1967; House, 1977. Today, there is a lot of interest in charismatic or transformational leadership. Charismatic leadership represents a leadership style that enables the leader to exercise diffuse and intense influence over the beliefs, values, behaviour and performance of others (House, Spangler & Woyche, 1991).
Charismatic leaders tend to be dominant and self-confident with a need to influence others while believing strongly in their own values. They communicate their goals and visions clearly, and have high expectations of their followers’ performance. The fascination with this kind of leadership is evidenced by the number of books by or about charismatic leaders. Some studies suggest that these leaders inspire effort and satisfaction amongst their employees, resulting in higher productivity.

One of these statements referring to organizational culture is FALSE – please highlight it: 
  • a)
    Organizational culture can be described as shared values, attitudes and beliefs held by organizational members. 
  • b)
    Pay levels are not a manifestation of organizational culture. 
  • c)
    Organizational psychologists have adopted three approaches to understanding culture. 
  • d)
    We can best understand organizational culture by adopting a multi-dimensional perspective.
Correct answer is option 'B'. Can you explain this answer?

Arun Yadav answered
Organizations can also be described in terms of their cultures, including their values, attitudes and beliefs. Manifestations of culture include: hierarchy; pay levels; job descriptions; informal practices; espoused values and rituals; stories, jokes and jargon; physical environment. The meanings of all these aspects of the organization taken together tell us about its underlying culture (Schein, 1992).
There has been particular interest in how to ‘manage’ organizational culture, and considerable resources have been spent trying to create ‘a service culture’ or ‘an open culture’ or ‘a people culture’, to name but three examples. Organizational psychologists have adopted three approaches to understanding culture (Martin, 1992): integration, differentiation and fragmentation. These differing dimensions suggest that organizational culture is complex and that we can best understand it by adopting a multi-dimensional perspective.

One of these statements about job selection is FALSE. But which one? 
  • a)
    Job selection is based on the premise that there are differences between people which can be identified. 
  • b)
    Job selection is based on the premise that there are differences between people that have an impact on how effective people are in a particular job. 
  • c)
    Psychologists are beginning to come to the fore in terms of developing and using personnel selection methods. 
  • d)
    Failure to achieve a fit between the person and the organization can lead to a feeling of low esteem on the part of the employee.
Correct answer is option 'C'. Can you explain this answer?

Arun Yadav answered
Selection is based on the premise that there are stable individual differences between people, which can be identified, and that these differences have an impact on how effective people are in a particular job (Robertson, 1995). Not surprisingly, psychologists have been at the forefront of developing and using personnel selection methods for some time. One of the aims of selection is to ensure a fit, i.e. a good match, between the person and the organization. Failure to achieve this can not only result in poor job performance, but the well-being of the employee also suffers, and ultimately the employment relationship is likely to end.

All of the following are examples of selection procedures used by organizations to match people with jobs except for ___________. 
  • a)
    Work-sample tests 
  • b)
    Biodata 
  • c)
    Psychometric tests 
  • d)
    Work load tests 
  • e)
    Interviews
Correct answer is option 'D'. Can you explain this answer?

Rajesh Gupta answered
Work load tests are not an example of a common selection procedure used to make the best matches between people and jobs whereas each of the remaining choices are examples of common selection procedures.

A major area of research on power in organizations examines the experiences of women at work. Which of the statements given below is also true of women at work? 
  • a)
    Stereotyping is no longer a problem for women at work. 
  • b)
    It is illegal to treat pregnancy as a cause for dismissal. 
  • c)
    Women’s representation in the ranks of executives has remained the same in recent years. 
  • d)
    Women tend to use a transactional leadership style.
Correct answer is option 'B'. Can you explain this answer?

Rajesh Gupta answered
One significant problem for women at work is stereotyping: 52 per cent of employed women work in occupational groups in which more than 60 per cent of their co-workers are women, such as clerical and secretarial work, service work and sales. Women are also vastly over-represented in part-time work and pregnancy is still (illegally) treated by some employers as a cause for dismissal. Perhaps most revealing of the pervasive discrimination against women in the workplace is the data on pay: in 2003, women’s average hourly pay was still only 82 per cent of men’s. Although women have increased their representation somewhat in the ranks of executives, they still account for less than 5 per cent of company directors (Equal Opportunities Commission, 2004) in the UK.
One issue, which is much debated, is whether women have different managerial or leadership styles from men. The bulk of the research suggests there are large differences within genders as well as between them, but that women adopt a consistently more democratic and participative style of management than men do (Eagly & Johnson, 1990; Powell, 1993). Some researchers argue that women also have a more ‘transformational’ style, inspiring and encouraging their employees, whereas men tend to use a ‘transactional’ style, punishing and rewarding selectively to achieve the desired task-related behaviours (e.g. Rosener, 1990).

Research has indicated that egocentricity, group polarization and production-blocking all contribute to diminished __________. 
  • a)
    Group decision-making 
  • b)
    Group cohesiveness 
  • c)
    Organizational culture 
  • d)
    Group effectiveness 
  • e)
    Group power
Correct answer is option 'A'. Can you explain this answer?

Rajesh Gupta answered
Egocentricity, group polarization and production-blocking are three examples of factors that contribute to poor group decision-making. The remaining terms are not used to refer to the consequences of egocentricity, group polarization and production-blocking.

Which source of power, according to French and Raven (1959), would be represented by delaying the payment of expense claims or denying requested vacation time to employees? 
  • a)
    Coercive power 
  • b)
    Reward power 
  • c)
    Referent power 
  • d)
    Legitimate power 
  • e)
    Expert power
Correct answer is option 'A'. Can you explain this answer?

Rajesh Gupta answered
Coercive power is the power to force others into action or inaction by way of threat or punishment. Legitimate power comes from actually being in a position in the hierarchy of imposed authority. Reward power comes from allocating extra tokens or bonuses. Referent power comes from being persuasive and popular. Expert power comes from having access to knowledge and information not available to others.

The hierarchical organizational structure of Disneyland, with employees working at varying levels of status including food vendors, street cleaners, ride operators and supervisors, represents what type of organizational culture? 
  • a)
    Integration 
  • b)
    Pluralist 
  • c)
    Fragmentation 
  • d)
    Differentiation 
  • e)
    None of the above
Correct answer is option 'D'. Can you explain this answer?

Rajesh Gupta answered
The differentiation perspective describes an organization with a culture that recognizes different interests, views, backgrounds and position of employees, and the different attitudes, working conditions and pay across the different levels of the organization. Integration refers to an organization-wide consensus about the values of the organization, and thus a unified organizational culture across levels of the organization. Fragmentation refers to an organization with an ambiguous culture because it lacks consensus about the meaning, attitudes and values of the organization. Pluralist refers to a view about how organizations should be as opposed to describing the way an organizational culture actually is.

Once you have started work for an organization, through socialization and training it will seek to shape you to fit in and to contribute to achieving its goals. But which of the following is NOT true of socialization? 
  • a)
    Socialization is the process by which members of a society are taught how to behave and feel by influential members of that society. 
  • b)
    Socialization can occur in a country, organization or even in a family. 
  • c)
    In the past, socialization theory and research has concentrated on the development of adults, but more recently, it has become clear that children are also socialized. 
  • d)
    When employees start work, they learn to align their work values with those of the organization.
Correct answer is option 'C'. Can you explain this answer?

Arun Yadav answered
Socialization is the process by which members of a society (be it a country, organization or even a family) are taught how to behave and feel by influential members of that society. In the past, theory and research has concentrated on the development of children and adolescents. But more recently it has become clear that we are socialized and resocialized throughout our lives (Wanous, Reichers & Malik, 1984). When employees start work, they learn about their new jobs, the work environment and how they are required to behave – attending meetings on time, dressing according to certain standards, using particular styles of speech.
When employees start work, they learn to align their work values with those of the organization. For example, army recruits are socialized, or indoctrinated, into the ‘army way’, learning not only the rules and regulations but also the values and behaviours that match the army’s distinctive culture. Many commercial organizations emphasize customer service as vital, and require employees to adopt the values, attitudes and behaviours that support such a service strategy.

The shared belief among members of a work team that it is safe to take interpersonal risks and that they will not be rejected or punished for speaking up is referred to as ______________. 
  • a)
    Team process 
  • b)
    Psychological safety 
  • c)
    Team viability 
  • d)
    Groupthink 
  • e)
    Team beliefs
Correct answer is option 'B'. Can you explain this answer?

Arun Yadav answered
Psychological safety is the shared belief among members of a work team that it is safe to take interpersonal risks within work teams. Team process, team viability, groupthink and team beliefs are not terms used to refer to this type of shared belief within work teams.

Which of the following statements regarding the psychological effects of unemployment is FALSE? 
  • a)
    The unemployed have poorer mental health than comparable groups of employed people. 
  • b)
    The unemployed have poorer physical health than comparable groups of employed people. 
  • c)
    The psychological effects of unemployment do not usually affect anyone apart from the unemployed person. 
  • d)
    None of the above – all are correct.
Correct answer is option 'C'. Can you explain this answer?

Rajesh Gupta answered
Research from the 1930s to the present day has consistently shown that the unemployed have poorer mental health than comparable groups of employed people. Unemployed people have worse profiles on measures of anxiety, depression, life dissatisfaction, experienced stress, negative self-esteem and hopelessness about the future. They are also more likely to report social isolation and low levels of daily activity. Their physical health is poorer, and they are more likely to attempt and commit suicide (Fryer, 1992; Warr, 1987).
Striking, too, is the fact that the psychological effects of unemployment extend to the whole family. In a classic study of a whole village affected by unemployment, the effects were shown to spread across the whole community, lowering its spirit and functioning (Jahoda, Lazarsfeld & Zeisel, 1972).

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