All questions of The Vijayanagar Empire and Bahamani Kingdom for UPSC CSE Exam

Vijayanagara ruler defeated by Firuz Bahmani

Deva Raya-I was the ruler of Vijayanagara who was decisively defeated by Firuz Bahmani.

Background

In the 14th century, the Bahmani Sultanate was emerged in the Deccan region of India. The Vijayanagara Empire, which was established in the 14th century, was a powerful Hindu kingdom in South India. The Bahmani Sultanate and the Vijayanagara Empire were constantly at war with each other for territorial expansion.

War between Vijayanagara and Bahmani Sultanate

In 1406, Firuz Bahmani, the ruler of the Bahmani Sultanate, invaded Vijayanagara. Deva Raya-I, the ruler of Vijayanagara, led his army to fight against the Bahmani Sultanate. However, the Vijayanagara army was decisively defeated by Firuz Bahmani.

Consequences of the war

As a result of the war, Deva Raya-I was forced to pay a huge war indemnity to Firuz Bahmani. He also had to offer his daughter in marriage to Firuz Bahmani as a sign of surrender. This marriage alliance between the two kingdoms was meant to establish peace and stability in the Deccan region.

Conclusion

The defeat of Deva Raya-I by Firuz Bahmani was a significant event in the history of the Deccan region. It marked the beginning of a new phase of political and cultural interaction between the Vijayanagara Empire and the Bahmani Sultanate. Despite the defeat, the Vijayanagara Empire continued to thrive and expand under the leadership of its subsequent rulers.

The correct answer is option C, Tenali Ramakrishna. Tenali Ramakrishna, also known as Tenali Rama, was a poet who adorned the court of Krishnadeva Raya, the ruler of the Vijayanagara Empire in southern India.

1. Historical Context:
During the reign of Krishnadeva Raya, the Vijayanagara Empire was at its peak, and the court was known for its patronage of literature, arts, and culture. Many poets, scholars, and artists were invited to the court to showcase their talents.

2. Tenali Ramakrishna:
Tenali Ramakrishna was one of the most prominent poets who graced the court of Krishnadeva Raya. He was born in Tenali, Andhra Pradesh, and was known for his wit, humor, and intelligence.

3. Wit and Humor:
Tenali Ramakrishna was renowned for his ability to entertain and amuse with his witty and humorous stories. He had a unique talent for creating clever wordplay, puns, and humorous anecdotes that delighted both the king and the courtiers.

4. Folklore and Legends:
Many legends and folktales have been associated with Tenali Ramakrishna's wit and humor. These stories often depict his encounters with the king, where he would outwit those who tried to challenge him or prove their intelligence. His quick thinking and clever responses made him a favorite among the courtiers and the king himself.

5. Legacy and Popularity:
Tenali Ramakrishna's wit and humor have made him a legendary figure in southern India. His stories and anecdotes are still widely popular and have been passed down through generations. He is known as a symbol of intelligence, wit, and wit.

In conclusion, Tenali Ramakrishna is known all over southern India for his wit and humor. His presence at the court of Krishnadeva Raya brought entertainment and laughter to the royal court, making him a beloved figure in the region's folklore and literature.

Harihara II was primarily responsible for extending the Vijayanagar empire over the whole southern India.

Heading: Background Information
The Vijayanagar Empire was established in 1336 AD by two brothers Harihara I and Bukka Raya. The empire was founded in the Deccan Plateau region of South India. Initially, the empire was small and consisted of only a few regions. However, over time, the empire expanded and became one of the most powerful empires in South India.

Heading: Harihara II's Reign
Harihara II was the third ruler of the Vijayanagar Empire. He came to power in 1377 AD after the death of his father Bukka Raya. He ruled for 31 years and during his reign, he extended the empire's territory significantly.

Heading: Conquest of Warangal
One of Harihara II's most significant achievements was the conquest of the Kakatiya dynasty's capital, Warangal. In 1378 AD, Harihara II led his army against the Kakatiya dynasty, which was a powerful kingdom in South India. After a long and bloody war, Harihara II's army emerged victorious, and he captured Warangal. This conquest gave the Vijayanagar Empire access to the rich resources of the Telugu region.

Heading: Conquest of Madurai
Another significant conquest during Harihara II's reign was the capture of Madurai. Madurai was a powerful city located in the Tamil region of South India. Harihara II's army captured the city in 1379 AD, and this conquest gave the Vijayanagar Empire control over the entire Tamil region.

Heading: Consolidation of Empire
After the conquest of Warangal and Madurai, Harihara II focused on consolidating the empire's territory. He built several forts and established garrisons in strategic locations to defend the empire's borders. He also established a strong administrative system to govern the newly acquired territories.

Heading: Conclusion
In conclusion, Harihara II was primarily responsible for extending the Vijayanagar empire over the whole southern India. His conquests of Warangal and Madurai significantly expanded the empire's territory and consolidated its power in the region.

Bitragunta Grant
The Bitragunta Grant is the inscription that gives us the genealogy of the five Sangama brothers. Here is the detailed explanation:

Introduction
The Sangama brothers were a prominent dynasty that ruled over the Vijayanagara Empire in South India. The Bitragunta Grant, also known as the Bitragunta Copper Plate, is an important historical document that provides insights into the genealogy of these brothers.

Key Information
- The Bitragunta Grant is an inscription found in the village of Bitragunta in Andhra Pradesh, India.
- It is written in the Telugu language and dates back to the 14th century.
- The inscription is engraved on a copper plate and contains valuable information about the lineage and titles of the Sangama brothers.

Genealogy of the Sangama Brothers
The Bitragunta Grant provides the genealogy of the five Sangama brothers, who were the founders of the Sangama dynasty. According to the inscription:

- Harihara I: He was the first ruler of the Sangama dynasty and the eldest of the five brothers. He is mentioned as the son of Sangama, hence the dynasty's name. Harihara I ruled from 1336 to 1356.

- Bukka I: He was the second ruler and the younger brother of Harihara I. Bukka I succeeded his brother and ruled from 1356 to 1377.

- Kumara Kampana: He was the third brother and played an important role in expanding the Vijayanagara Empire. He was appointed as a governor of various territories and was known for his military prowess.

- Marappa: He was the fourth brother and served as a commander in the Vijayanagara Empire.

- Muddapa: He was the youngest of the five brothers and also held a prominent position in the Vijayanagara Empire.

Significance
The Bitragunta Grant is significant for understanding the history and genealogy of the Sangama brothers. It sheds light on their lineage, titles, and their contributions to the Vijayanagara Empire. This inscription helps historians and researchers piece together the history of the Sangama dynasty and their impact on South India.

0.66 mins

Answer is e here

Correct answer is b.

Only single ruler hi best tha krishna dev raya kyuki astdiggaj kavi the iske darbar me same chandragupt 2 and akbar me bhi the
he is educated person

The first Vijayanagar ruler to wrest the important port of Goa from the Bahmanis was Harihara-II.

Explanation:
- Harihara-II was the son of Bukka-II and the grandson of Bukka-I, who was the co-founder of the Vijayanagara Empire along with his brother Harihara-I.
- Harihara-II ruled from 1377 to 1404 CE and was known for his military conquests and expansion of the empire.
- Goa was an important port city on the west coast of India, and it was under the control of the Bahmani Sultanate, which was a rival kingdom to the Vijayanagara Empire.
- Harihara-II launched a military campaign to capture Goa, and he succeeded in doing so in 1380 CE.
- The capture of Goa was a significant achievement for the Vijayanagara Empire, as it gave them control over an important trade route and access to the Arabian Sea.
- Harihara-II continued to expand the empire by conquering other territories, and his reign was marked by stability and prosperity.

In conclusion, Harihara-II was the first Vijayanagar ruler to capture Goa from the Bahmanis, and this event played a significant role in the expansion and success of the Vijayanagara Empire.

-Deva Raya II was an emperor of the Vijayanagara Empire. The greatest of the Sangama dynasty rulers, he was an able administrator, warrior, and scholar. He authored well-known works in the Kannada language and in the Sanskrit language.

B

D) He personally looked after the wounded and took personal care of the distinguished fighters amongst the defeated too. This action demonstrates Krishnadeva Raya's qualities of leadership, as it shows that he was concerned for the well-being of his soldiers and was willing to treat even his enemies with kindness and respect. This kind of compassion and concern for the welfare of others is an important quality in a leader, as it helps to earn the loyalty and respect of those being led. Additionally, taking care of the wounded and defeated shows a level of humanity and compassion that is often lacking in military conflicts, and it can help to reduce animosity and foster goodwill between different groups.

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The correct answer is option A: The satis sacrifice was commemorated by the erection of Satikals.

Explanation:
The practice of becoming a sati or sahagamana was prevalent in ancient India. Sati is the act of a widow self-immolating on her husband's funeral pyre. Sahagamana refers to a widow joining her husband in death by voluntary fasting.

a) The satis sacrifice was commemorated by the erection of Satikals:
This statement is incorrect. There is no historical evidence to suggest that the satis sacrifice was commemorated by the erection of Satikals. Satikals are not associated with the practice of sati or sahagamana.

b) There was no compulsion, and it was done voluntarily:
This statement is correct. The practice of sati or sahagamana was not compulsory. It was a voluntary act undertaken by widows who believed it would elevate their status and ensure their spiritual union with their deceased husbands.

c) It was very popular and widespread:
This statement is correct. The practice of sati or sahagamana was prevalent in ancient India, particularly during the medieval period. It was considered an act of virtue and devotion by some sections of society, and many widows willingly chose to undertake it.

d) There were no social disabilities attached to widows who did not choose to become satis:
This statement is correct. Widows who did not choose to become satis were not socially ostracized or subjected to any disabilities. They were allowed to live a normal life within society, although they might have faced certain restrictions or limitations due to their widowhood.

In conclusion, the correct statement is option A: The satis sacrifice was commemorated by the erection of Satikals. This statement is incorrect as there is no historical evidence linking the practice of sati or sahagamana to the erection of Satikals.

Overview of Harihara II
Harihara II was a significant ruler of the Vijayanagara Empire during the 15th century. His reign was marked by various military and diplomatic endeavors, particularly involving interactions with neighboring states.
Correct Statement: Expedition to North Sri Lanka
- Harihara II is noted for sending an expedition to north Sri Lanka.
- This military campaign aimed to expand the influence of the Vijayanagara Empire beyond the Indian subcontinent and assert dominance in the region.
- The expedition reflects the ambition of the Vijayanagara rulers to control trade routes and establish authority over strategic territories.
Analysis of Other Statements
- a) Inability to Maintain Position Against Bahmani-Warangal Combine
- While the Bahmani Sultanate and the Kakatiya Kingdom (Warangal) were rivals, this statement does not accurately represent the overall military capabilities of Harihara II. His reign witnessed fluctuating control but was not solely marked by this inability.
- b) Failure to Wrest Belgaum and Goa
- Although the Bahmani kingdom posed challenges in the west, declaring failure in this context oversimplifies the complex territorial dynamics of that period.
- c) Loss of Control Over the Tamil Region
- While there were challenges in the Tamil regions, it is debatable whether this loss was definitive. The Vijayanagara Empire continued to exert influence in various southern territories during and after Harihara II's reign.
Conclusion
In summary, option D is the correct choice as it highlights Harihara II's proactive approach in expanding the empire's reach through military expeditions, specifically to north Sri Lanka. This action underscores the ambitions of the Vijayanagara Empire during his rule.

C

Several malpractices were existed : The society of Vijayanagara had many malpractices. The animals were sacrificed to please gods and goddesses. The practice of sati was very popular in the society. Even the Telugu women were buried alive after the deaths of their husbands. Besides there was an evil of prostitution. Deva Raya II had twelve thousand queens. He had married three thousand queens on the condition that they would perform sati after his death.

The War of the Goldsmith's Daughter: Firuz Shah and Deva Raya

The War of the Goldsmith's Daughter was a significant conflict in Indian history that took place between Firuz Shah, the Sultan of Delhi, and Deva Raya, the ruler of the Vijayanagara Empire. This war occurred during the 14th century and had far-reaching consequences for both empires involved.

Background:

1. The Vijayanagara Empire was a powerful Hindu kingdom in Southern India, known for its wealth and military prowess.
2. The Delhi Sultanate, led by Firuz Shah, was a Muslim empire that had expanded its control over large parts of Northern India.

Causes of the War:

1. Expansionist Ambitions: Firuz Shah sought to extend his dominion over the Deccan region, which included the Vijayanagara Empire.
2. Economic Interests: The Vijayanagara Empire was renowned for its prosperous trade and goldsmithing industry. Firuz Shah coveted the wealth and resources of this empire.
3. Religious Differences: The Delhi Sultanate was predominantly Muslim, while the Vijayanagara Empire was Hindu. This religious divide created tensions and ideological clashes between the two empires.

Key Events and Outcomes:

1. Invasion of Vijayanagara: Firuz Shah launched a military campaign into the Deccan region, targeting the Vijayanagara Empire.
2. Battle of Mudgal: The decisive battle between Firuz Shah and Deva Raya took place at Mudgal, near Raichur. Deva Raya's forces put up a valiant fight but were eventually defeated by the superior military tactics and weaponry of Firuz Shah's army.
3. Occupation of Vijayanagara: Following the victory at Mudgal, Firuz Shah occupied the capital city of Vijayanagara and established his control over the empire.
4. Economic Exploitation: Firuz Shah looted the wealth of the Vijayanagara Empire, including its gold and precious resources. The goldsmiths and artisans were forced to work for the Delhi Sultanate, leading to a decline in the empire's economic prosperity.
5. Resistance and Rebellion: The occupation and exploitation by Firuz Shah led to widespread discontent and resistance among the people of Vijayanagara. This eventually culminated in a rebellion against the Delhi Sultanate.
6. Legacy: The War of the Goldsmith's Daughter marked a turning point in the history of both the Delhi Sultanate and the Vijayanagara Empire. It weakened the Vijayanagara Empire, making it vulnerable to future invasions. For the Delhi Sultanate, it was a temporary extension of their dominion in the Deccan region.

Conclusion:

The War of the Goldsmith's Daughter was a significant conflict between Firuz Shah and Deva Raya. It had profound implications for both empires, leading to the decline of the Vijayanagara Empire and the temporary expansion of the Delhi Sultanate. This war highlights the complex dynamics of power, religious differences, and economic interests that shaped medieval India.

Understanding the Quote
The statement "A crowned king should always rule with an eye towards dharma" emphasizes the responsibility of a monarch to govern ethically and justly. This principle is deeply rooted in Indian philosophy, particularly in the context of the rule of law and moral governance.
Krishnadeva Raya's Legacy
- Historical Significance: Krishnadeva Raya was one of the most illustrious rulers of the Vijayanagara Empire, reigning from 1509 to 1529.
- Promotion of Dharma: He is known for his commitment to dharmic principles, which encompass righteousness, justice, and moral order.
- Cultural Patronage: Under his rule, the empire flourished culturally and economically, promoting literature, art, and architecture, all aligned with dharma.
Philosophical Context
- Dharma in Governance: In ancient Indian texts, especially the Manusmriti, dharma is seen as the moral law that governs individual and societal conduct. A king's duty is to uphold this law for the welfare of his subjects.
- Ruler’s Responsibility: A king is not only a sovereign but also a custodian of justice. His authority is legitimized through his adherence to dharma.
Conclusion
In essence, the quote reflects Krishnadeva Raya's philosophy that effective leadership involves a steadfast commitment to ethical governance. His reign serves as a historical example of how rulers can harmonize power with moral responsibility, making option 'C' the correct answer in this context.

Military: The rulers of Vijaynagar had a carefully organised military departments called ‘Kandachara’, under the control of the Dandanayaka or Dannayaka( commander –inchief) who was assisted by a staff of minor officials. The State maintained a large and efficient army, the numerical strength of which was not , however, uniform all through. The regular troops of the king were, in times of need, reinforced by auxiliary forces of the feudatories and nobles. The several component parts of the army were the infantry, recruited from people of different classes and creeds, occasionally even including Muslims; the cavalry, strenghtned by the recruitment of god horses from Ormuz through the Portuguese, owing to a dearth of these animals in the Empire; elephants; camels; and artillery, the use of which by the Hindus as early as A.D. 1308 is proved by the evidence of foreign accounts as well as of inscriptions.

The city of Vijayanagar, located in present-day Hampi, Karnataka, was one of the most powerful and prosperous cities in South India during the 14th to 16th centuries. It was the capital of the Vijayanagara Empire and was known for its grand architecture, vibrant culture, and thriving economy. The city was fortified with seven walls, one within the other, to provide security and protection.

- The seventh fortress: The palace of the king
The seventh and innermost fortress housed the magnificent palace of the king. It was the center of power and authority in the city. The palace was adorned with exquisite carvings, intricate architecture, and sprawling gardens. It served as the residence of the royal family and was the seat of governance.

- The third fortress: Houses of nobles
Located between the third and seventh fortresses were the houses of nobles. These houses were occupied by the aristocracy and high-ranking officials of the kingdom. They were built in close proximity to the palace to maintain a sense of prestige and security. The nobles played a crucial role in the administration of the empire and were granted privileges and benefits by the king.

- Pride of place between the third and seventh fortress: Shops and bazaars
Among the various elements present between the third and seventh fortresses, it was the shops and bazaars that occupied pride of place. These commercial areas were bustling with activity and served as the economic hub of the city. They were filled with merchants, traders, and artisans who sold a wide range of goods and services. The shops and bazaars were essential for the city's economy, as they facilitated trade, commerce, and exchange of goods.

The presence of shops and bazaars between the third and seventh fortresses highlights the importance of trade and commerce in the city of Vijayanagar. The thriving economy of the city was a crucial factor in its prosperity and influence. The presence of these commercial areas in such a prominent location suggests that the empire placed significant emphasis on economic activities and encouraged a vibrant market culture.

Explanation:

Kuttagari is a type of lease system of cultivation that was prevalent in ancient India, particularly in the Deccan plateau region. Under this system, certain lands were leased out to cultivators for a fixed period of time, usually for a period of 5 years. The cultivator had to pay a fixed rent to the landowner, which was usually a percentage of the produce.

Features of Kuttagari:

- Lease system: Kuttagari was a type of lease system of cultivation. Cultivators were given the right to cultivate the land for a fixed period of time, in exchange for paying a fixed rent to the landowner.

- Fixed period of time: The lease period under Kuttagari was usually for a period of 5 years. After the lease period was over, the land would be given to another cultivator.

- Percentage of produce: The rent paid by the cultivator was usually a percentage of the produce. This ensured that the landowner got a share of the profits, while also incentivizing the cultivator to produce more.

- Deccan plateau region: Kuttagari was particularly prevalent in the Deccan plateau region of India, which includes the states of Maharashtra, Karnataka, Telangana and Andhra Pradesh.

Advantages of Kuttagari:

- Incentivizes cultivation: The lease system of Kuttagari incentivizes cultivators to produce more, as they get to keep the remaining produce after paying the rent.

- Provides land security: Cultivators who have leased land under Kuttagari have a sense of land security, as they know that they have the right to cultivate the land for a fixed period of time.

- Increases agricultural productivity: Kuttagari can increase agricultural productivity, as it encourages cultivators to invest in the land and adopt better farming practices.

Conclusion:

Kuttagari was a lease system of cultivation that was prevalent in ancient India. It incentivized cultivation, provided land security, and increased agricultural productivity. While Kuttagari is no longer prevalent in India, it has left an indelible mark on Indian agriculture and continues to be studied by scholars and researchers.

The Vijayanagar Empire and its Expansion

The Vijayanagar Empire was one of the most powerful and prosperous kingdoms in South India, which existed from the 14th to the 17th century. Founded by the Sangama brothers Harihara I and Bukka I, the empire reached its zenith under the rule of Krishnadeva Raya. The empire was known for its military strength, administrative efficiency, and patronage of art and culture.

Conquest of Sri Lanka

Out of the given options, Harihara II is said to have conquered Sri Lanka. Harihara II was the son of Bukka I and the successor of Harihara I, who was one of the founders of the Vijayanagar Empire. Harihara II ruled from 1377 to 1404 CE.

During his reign, Harihara II expanded the empire's territories through military conquests, and Sri Lanka was one of the regions that came under his control. The exact details of the conquest are not well-documented, but historical records mention the Vijayanagar Empire's influence in Sri Lanka during this period.

Significance of the Conquest

The conquest of Sri Lanka by Harihara II was significant for several reasons:

1. Strategic Importance: Sri Lanka's geographical location made it an important strategic base for trade and naval activities in the Indian Ocean. By conquering Sri Lanka, the Vijayanagar Empire gained control over key trade routes and established a strong naval presence in the region.

2. Economic Benefits: Sri Lanka was known for its valuable resources, including spices, gems, and precious metals. The empire's control over the island allowed it to exploit these resources and enhance its economic prosperity.

3. Cultural Exchange: The conquest of Sri Lanka facilitated cultural exchange between the Vijayanagar Empire and the island's inhabitants. The empire's influence on Sri Lankan society led to the spread of the Vijayanagar style of architecture, art, and religious practices.

Conclusion

In conclusion, Harihara II of the Vijayanagar Empire is said to have conquered Sri Lanka. This conquest was a significant milestone in the empire's history, as it expanded its territories, gained control over strategic trade routes, and facilitated cultural exchange with Sri Lanka.

The correct answer is option 'A': III, II, I, IV, V, VI

Marco Polo, Ibn-Batuta, and Nikitin were three foreign travelers who visited India during different periods. Let's arrange them in chronological order along with the other travelers mentioned:

I. Nikitin
II. Ibn-Batuta
III. Marco Polo
IV. Nicolo Conti
V. Abdur Razzaq
VI. Barbosa

Now let's discuss each traveler and their respective time periods:

**Marco Polo (1254-1324)**:
Marco Polo was an Italian merchant and explorer who is famous for his travels to Asia, including India. He embarked on his journey in 1271 and reached India in 1292. He spent several years in India, exploring various regions and documenting his observations. Marco Polo's travels took place during the 13th century.

**Ibn-Batuta (1304-1368/1377)**:
Ibn-Batuta was a Moroccan scholar and explorer who embarked on a journey in 1325 to perform the Hajj pilgrimage. His journey extended over several decades, and he covered a vast territory, including India. Ibn-Batuta visited India multiple times between 1333 and 1347, spending a significant amount of time in the region. His travels occurred during the 14th century.

**Nikitin (1466-1474)**:
Nikitin was a Russian merchant who traveled to India during the 15th century. He arrived in India around 1468 and spent several years trading and exploring the country. Nikitin's travels took place during the 15th century.

**Nicolo Conti (1395-1469)**:
Nicolo Conti was an Italian merchant who visited India during the 15th century. He arrived in India around 1420 and spent several years exploring various regions, including the Malabar Coast. Conti's travels occurred during the 15th century.

**Abdur Razzaq (1413-1482)**:
Abdur Razzaq was an ambassador from the Timurid Empire who visited India in the 15th century. He traveled to India in the early 1440s and stayed for a few years. Razzaq's travels took place during the 15th century.

**Barbosa (1480-1521)**:
Barbosa was a Portuguese explorer who visited India during the early 16th century. He arrived in India in 1500 and spent several years documenting his observations and experiences in the country. Barbosa's travels occurred during the 16th century.

Therefore, the correct chronological order of the foreign travelers is:

III. Marco Polo
II. Ibn-Batuta
I. Nikitin
IV. Nicolo Conti
V. Abdur Razzaq
VI. Barbosa

Hence, option 'A' is the correct answer.

Categories of Land Classification for Assessment

In the context of land assessment, land is often classified into different categories based on various characteristics. One of the common categorizations includes the classification of land into different types such as orchard, wet, and dry. This categorization helps in determining the appropriate assessment and taxation for different types of land.

Orchard Land
Orchard land refers to the land that is specifically used for cultivating fruit-bearing trees. This category includes land dedicated to growing various types of orchards, such as apple orchards, orange groves, or vineyards. Assessing orchard land separately allows for a more accurate evaluation of its agricultural productivity and potential income generation.

Wet Land
Wet land refers to areas characterized by a high water table, saturation, or even periodic flooding. These areas typically have distinct soil and hydrological properties that make them suitable for wetland vegetation and ecosystems. Wetlands play a crucial role in maintaining biodiversity, water filtration, and flood control. Assessing wetland areas separately acknowledges their ecological significance and potential limitations for certain types of land use.

Dry Land
Dry land, also known as upland or non-wetland land, refers to areas that are not characterized by high water tables or frequent flooding. This category typically includes agricultural land, grazing land, residential areas, and various other types of land that are not classified as wetland. Assessing dry land separately allows for a more accurate evaluation of its potential for agricultural or other productive uses.

Importance of Categorization
Categorizing land into different types for assessment purposes is essential for several reasons:

1. Accurate Assessment: Different types of land have varying potentials for income generation and different characteristics that influence their value. Assessing land based on these categories helps in determining fair and accurate assessments for tax purposes.

2. Equitable Taxation: By categorizing land, tax authorities can apply appropriate tax rates based on the land's specific use and potential income. This helps in ensuring equitable taxation for landowners and prevents over or under-taxation.

3. Land Use Planning: Categorization of land also aids in land use planning and zoning. It allows policymakers to identify areas suitable for specific purposes, such as agriculture, conservation, or urban development, based on the characteristics of the land.

In conclusion, land categorization into types such as orchard, wet, and dry is important for assessing land fairly, applying appropriate tax rates, and facilitating effective land use planning. This classification recognizes the distinct characteristics and potential uses of different types of land, ensuring a more accurate assessment and taxation system. Therefore, the correct answer to the question is option 'D' - all of the above.

Religious Toleration in Vijayanagar Empire
The Vijayanagar Empire, known for its cultural and religious diversity, adopted a policy of religious toleration under its kings. This approach was instrumental in maintaining peace and stability in a region characterized by a mix of Hindu and Muslim populations, as well as foreign influences.
King Venkata II and the Portuguese
Among the rulers of Vijayanagar, King Venkata II (reigned 1586–1614) is particularly noted for his friendly relations with the Portuguese.
Key Points:
- Support for Christianity: Venkata II's reign marked a period when the Portuguese were allowed to establish churches in the region, notably in Vellore. This move demonstrated his policy of religious toleration.
- Political Alliances: By permitting the Portuguese to build churches, Venkata II aimed to strengthen political ties with them, which was crucial for trade and military alliances.
- Cultural Exchange: The establishment of churches facilitated cultural exchanges, influencing local customs and practices while also allowing for the spread of Christianity in a predominantly Hindu region.
Conclusion
In conclusion, King Venkata II's decision to allow the Portuguese to establish churches at Vellore exemplifies the religious tolerance practiced in the Vijayanagar Empire. This policy not only fostered diplomatic relations but also enriched the cultural landscape of the region.

The correct answer is option 'C' - Nicolo Conti

Explanation:
Nicolo Conti, an Italian merchant and explorer, is the one who provided this description of a city in India. He visited India during the 15th century and wrote extensively about his experiences and observations. In his writings, he described the city's circumference, the walls that reached up to the mountains, and the valleys enclosed at their foot. He also mentioned that the city had an estimated population of ninety thousand men fit to bear arms and that its king was more powerful than all the other kings in India.

Key points:
Here are the key points to remember about this question:

1. The description of the city, including its circumference, walls, and population, was provided by Nicolo Conti.
2. Nicolo Conti was an Italian merchant and explorer who visited India during the 15th century.
3. He wrote extensively about his experiences and observations during his time in India.
4. In his writings, he described the city as having a circumference of sixty miles and walls that reached up to the mountains.
5. The city also enclosed valleys at their foot.
6. Nicolo Conti estimated that there were around ninety thousand men fit to bear arms in the city.
7. He also mentioned that the king of this city was more powerful than all the other kings in India.

Conclusion:
In conclusion, the description of the city with a circumference of sixty miles, walls reaching up to the mountains, and a population of ninety thousand men fit to bear arms was provided by Nicolo Conti, an Italian merchant and explorer who visited India during the 15th century.